Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard
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Frederick John Dealtry Lugard, 1st Baron Lugard (22 January 1858 – 11 April 1945), known as Sir Frederick Lugard between 1901 and 1928, was a British soldier,
explorer Exploration is the process of exploring, an activity which has some Expectation (epistemic), expectation of Discovery (observation), discovery. Organised exploration is largely a human activity, but exploratory activity is common to most organis ...
of Africa and colonial administrator. He was
Governor of Hong Kong The governor of Hong Kong was the representative of the United Kingdom, British The Crown, Crown in British Hong Kong, Hong Kong from 1843 to 1997. In this capacity, the governor was president of the Executive Council of Hong Kong, Executiv ...
(1907–1912), the last Governor of
Southern Nigeria Protectorate Southern Nigeria was a British protectorate in the coastal areas of modern-day Nigeria formed in 1900 from the union of the Niger Coast Protectorate with territories chartered by the Royal Niger Company below Lokoja on the Niger River. The L ...
(1912–1914), the first High Commissioner (1900–1906), the last Governor (1912–1914) of
Northern Nigeria Protectorate Northern Nigeria ( Hausa: ''Arewacin Najeriya'') was a British protectorate which lasted from 1900 until 1914, and covered the northern part of what is now Nigeria. The protectorate spanned and included the emirates of the Sokoto Caliphate ...
and the first Governor-General of Nigeria (1914–1919).


Early life and education

Lugard was born in
Madras Chennai, also known as Madras ( its official name until 1996), is the capital and largest city of Tamil Nadu, the southernmost state of India. It is located on the Coromandel Coast of the Bay of Bengal. According to the 2011 Indian ce ...
(now
Chennai Chennai, also known as Madras (List of renamed places in India#Tamil Nadu, its official name until 1996), is the capital city, capital and List of cities in Tamil Nadu by population, largest city of Tamil Nadu, the southernmost states and ...
), India, but was brought up in Worcester, England. He was the son of
the Reverend The Reverend (abbreviated as The Revd, The Rev'd or The Rev) is an honorific style (form of address), style given to certain (primarily Western Christian, Western) Christian clergy and Christian minister, ministers. There are sometimes differen ...
Frederick Grueber Lugard, a British Army chaplain at Madras, and his third wife, Mary Howard (1819–1865), the youngest daughter of Reverend John Garton Howard (1786–1862), a younger son of landed gentry from Thorne and
Melbourne Melbourne ( , ; Boonwurrung language, Boonwurrung/ or ) is the List of Australian capital cities, capital and List of cities in Australia by population, most populous city of the States and territories of Australia, Australian state of Victori ...
, near
York York is a cathedral city in North Yorkshire, England, with Roman Britain, Roman origins, sited at the confluence of the rivers River Ouse, Yorkshire, Ouse and River Foss, Foss. It has many historic buildings and other structures, such as a Yor ...
. His paternal uncle was Sir Edward Lugard, Adjutant-General in India from 1857 to 1858 and Permanent Under-Secretary of State for War at the
War Office The War Office has referred to several British government organisations throughout history, all relating to the army. It was a department of the British Government responsible for the administration of the British Army between 1857 and 1964, at ...
from 1861 to 1871. Lugard was educated at
Rossall School Rossall School is a private Day school, day and boarding school, boarding school in the United Kingdom for 0–18 year olds, between Cleveleys and Fleetwood, Lancashire. Rossall was founded in 1844 by St. Vincent Beechey, St Vincent Beechey as a ...
and the
Royal Military College, Sandhurst The Royal Military College (RMC) was a United Kingdom, British military academy for training infantry and cavalry Officer (armed forces), officers of the British Army, British and British Indian Army, Indian Armies. It was founded in 1801 at Gre ...
. The name 'Dealtry' was in honour of Thomas Dealtry, a friend of his father.


Military career

Lugard was commissioned into the 9th Foot (East Norfolk Regiment) in 1878 and joined the second
battalion A battalion is a military unit, typically consisting of up to one thousand soldiers. A battalion is commanded by a lieutenant colonel and subdivided into several Company (military unit), companies, each typically commanded by a Major (rank), ...
in India. He served in the
Second Anglo-Afghan War The Second Anglo-Afghan War (Dari: جنگ دوم افغان و انگلیس, ) was a military conflict fought between the British Raj and the Emirate of Afghanistan from 1878 to 1880, when the latter was ruled by Sher Ali Khan of the Barakzai dy ...
(1878–1880), the Sudan campaign (1884–1885) and the
Third Anglo-Burmese War The Third Anglo-Burmese War (), also known as the Third Burma War, took place during 7–29 November 1885, with sporadic resistance continuing into 1887. It was the final of three wars fought in the 19th century between the Burmese and the Br ...
(November 1885) and was awarded the
Distinguished Service Order The Distinguished Service Order (DSO) is a Military awards and decorations, military award of the United Kingdom, as well as formerly throughout the Commonwealth of Nations, Commonwealth, awarded for operational gallantry for highly successful ...
in 1887. His career was derailed when he fell in love with a twice-married British divorcee he had met in India. Learning she had been injured in an accident, he abandoned his post in
Burma Myanmar, officially the Republic of the Union of Myanmar; and also referred to as Burma (the official English name until 1989), is a country in northwest Southeast Asia. It is the largest country by area in Mainland Southeast Asia and ha ...
to join her in
Lucknow Lucknow () is the List of state and union territory capitals in India, capital and the largest city of the List of state and union territory capitals in India, Indian state of Uttar Pradesh and it is the administrative headquarters of the epon ...
and followed her to England. When she rejected him, Lugard decided to make a fresh start in Africa.


Karonga War

Around 1880, a group of Swahili traders, under Mlozi bin Kazbadema, established trading bases in the north-western sector of
Lake Malawi Lake Malawi, also known as Lake Nyasa in Tanzania and Lago Niassa in Mozambique, () is an African Great Lakes, African Great Lake and the southernmost lake in the East African Rift system, located between Malawi, Mozambique and Tanzania. It is ...
, including a stockade at Chilumba, on the lake, from which
ivory Ivory is a hard, white material from the tusks (traditionally from elephants) and Tooth, teeth of animals, that consists mainly of dentine, one of the physical structures of teeth and tusks. The chemical structure of the teeth and tusks of mamm ...
and
slaves Slavery is the ownership of a person as property, especially in regards to their labour. Slavery typically involves compulsory work, with the slave's location of work and residence dictated by the party that holds them in bondage. Enslavemen ...
could be shipped across the lake. In 1883 the African Lakes Company set up a base in Karonga to exchange ivory for trade goods from the Swahili merchants. Relations between the two groups deteriorated, partly because of the company's delays or unwillingness to provide guns,
ammunition Ammunition, also known as ammo, is the material fired, scattered, dropped, or detonated from any weapon or weapon system. The term includes both expendable weapons (e.g., bombs, missiles, grenades, land mines), and the component parts of oth ...
and other trade goods and also because the Swahili traders turned more to slaving and attacking communities that the company had promised to protect. Hostilities broke out in mid-1887. The series of intermittent armed clashes that took place up to mid-1889 is known as the Karonga War or sometimes the "Arab War". The African Lakes Company depot at Karonga was evacuated at the end of the year, but in May 1888, Captain Lugard, persuaded by the British Consul at
Mozambique Mozambique, officially the Republic of Mozambique, is a country located in Southeast Africa bordered by the Indian Ocean to the east, Tanzania to the north, Malawi and Zambia to the northwest, Zimbabwe to the west, and Eswatini and South Afr ...
, arrived to lead an expedition against Mlozi, sponsored by the African Lakes Company but without official support from the
British government His Majesty's Government, abbreviated to HM Government or otherwise UK Government, is the central government, central executive authority of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.
. Lugard's first expedition of May to June 1888 attacked the Swahili stockades with limited success, and in the course of one attack, he was wounded and withdrew southward. Lugard's second expedition in December 1888 to March 1889 was larger and included a 7-pounder gun, which, however, failed to breach the stockade walls. Following the second failure, Lugard left the Lake Malawi region for Britain in April 1889.


Exploration of East Africa

After leaving
Nyasaland Nyasaland () was a British protectorate in Africa that was established in 1907 when the former British Central Africa Protectorate changed its name. Between 1953 and 1963, Nyasaland was part of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. After ...
in April 1889, Lugard accepted a position with the Imperial British East Africa Company (IBEAC) and arrived in
Mombasa Mombasa ( ; ) is a coastal city in southeastern Kenya along the Indian Ocean. It was the first capital of British East Africa, before Nairobi was elevated to capital status in 1907. It now serves as the capital of Mombasa County. The town is ...
, on the coast of
East Africa East Africa, also known as Eastern Africa or the East of Africa, is a region at the eastern edge of the Africa, African continent, distinguished by its unique geographical, historical, and cultural landscape. Defined in varying scopes, the regi ...
, in December. A year earlier, in 1888, the IBEAC had been granted a
royal charter A royal charter is a formal grant issued by a monarch under royal prerogative as letters patent. Historically, they have been used to promulgate public laws, the most famous example being the English Magna Carta (great charter) of 1215, but ...
by Queen Victoria to colonise the "British
sphere of influence In the field of international relations, a sphere of influence (SOI) is a spatial region or concept division over which a state or organization has a level of cultural, economic, military, or political exclusivity. While there may be a formal a ...
" between
Zanzibar Zanzibar is a Tanzanian archipelago off the coast of East Africa. It is located in the Indian Ocean, and consists of many small Island, islands and two large ones: Unguja (the main island, referred to informally as Zanzibar) and Pemba Island. ...
and
Uganda Uganda, officially the Republic of Uganda, is a landlocked country in East Africa. It is bordered to the east by Kenya, to the north by South Sudan, to the west by the Democratic Republic of the Congo, to the south-west by Rwanda, and to the ...
and wanted to open a trading route between Lake Victoria, in Uganda, and the coastal port of Mombasa. The first interior trading post was established at Machakos, 240 miles in from the coast, but the established traditional route to Machakos was a treacherous journey through the large Taru Desert, 93 miles of scorching dust bowl. Lugard's first mission was to determine the feasibility of a route from Mombasa to Machakos that would bypass the Taru Desert. He explored the Sabaki River and the neighbouring region, in addition to elaborating a scheme for the
emancipation Emancipation generally means to free a person from a previous restraint or legal disability. More broadly, it is also used for efforts to procure Economic, social and cultural rights, economic and social rights, civil and political rights, po ...
of the slaves held by Arabs in the mainland of Zanzibar. On 6 August 1890, Lugard began his caravan expedition to Uganda and was accompanied by five other Europeans: George Wilson, Fenwick De Winton (son of Francis de Winton - Lugard's other chief), William Grant and Archibald Brown. He departed from Mombasa towards
Uganda Uganda, officially the Republic of Uganda, is a landlocked country in East Africa. It is bordered to the east by Kenya, to the north by South Sudan, to the west by the Democratic Republic of the Congo, to the south-west by Rwanda, and to the ...
to secure British predominance over German influence in the area and to put an end to the civil disturbances between factions in the Kingdom of Buganda. En route, Lugard was instructed to enter into
treaties A treaty is a formal, legally binding written agreement between sovereign states and/or international organizations that is governed by international law. A treaty may also be known as an international agreement, protocol, covenant, convention ...
with local tribes and build forts to secure safe passage for future IBEAC expeditions. The IBEAC employed official treaty documents, which were signed by their administrator and the local leaders, but Lugard preferred the more equitable
blood brother Blood brother can refer to two or more people not related by birth who have sworn loyalty to each other. This is in modern times usually done in a ceremony, known as a blood oath, where each person makes a small cut, usually on a finger, han ...
hood ceremony and entered into several brotherhood partnerships with leaders who inhabited the areas between Mombasa and Uganda. One of his famed blood partnerships was sealed in October 1890 during his journey to Uganda, when he stopped at Dagoretti in Kikuyu territory and entered into an
alliance An alliance is a relationship among people, groups, or sovereign state, states that have joined together for mutual benefit or to achieve some common purpose, whether or not an explicit agreement has been worked out among them. Members of an a ...
with Waiyaki Wa Hinga. Lugard was Military Administrator of Uganda from 26 December 1890 to May 1892. While administering Uganda, he journeyed around the Rwenzori Mountains to
Lake Edward Lake Edward (locally Rwitanzigye or Rweru) is one of the smaller African Great Lakes. It is located in the Albertine Rift, the western branch of the East African Rift, on the border between the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) and Uganda, ...
and mapped a large area of the country. He also visited Lake Albert and brought away some thousands of Sudanese who had been left there by Emin Pasha and
Henry Morton Stanley Sir Henry Morton Stanley (born John Rowlands; 28 January 1841 – 10 May 1904) was a Welsh-American explorer, journalist, soldier, colonial administrator, author, and politician famous for his exploration of Central Africa and search for missi ...
during the Emin Pasha Relief Expedition. When Lugard returned to England in 1892, he successfully dissuaded Prime Minister
William Gladstone William Ewart Gladstone ( ; 29 December 1809 – 19 May 1898) was a British politican, starting as Conservative MP for Newark and later becoming the leader of the Liberal Party. In a career lasting over 60 years, he was Prime Minister ...
from allowing the IBEAC to abandon Uganda.


Early colonial service

In 1894, Lugard was dispatched by the Royal Niger Company to
Borgu Borgu is a region and former country split between north-west Nigeria and the northern Republic of Benin. It was partitioned between British Empire, Great Britain and France by the Anglo-French Convention of 1898. People of Borgu are known as B ...
, where he secured treaties with the kings and chiefs who acknowledged the sovereignty of the British company and reduced the influence of other colonial powers. From 1896 to 1897, Lugard took charge of an expedition to Lake Ngami, in modern-day
Botswana Botswana, officially the Republic of Botswana, is a landlocked country in Southern Africa. Botswana is topographically flat, with approximately 70 percent of its territory part of the Kalahari Desert. It is bordered by South Africa to the sou ...
, on behalf of the British West Charterland Company. He was recalled from Ngami by the British government and sent to
West Africa West Africa, also known as Western Africa, is the westernmost region of Africa. The United Nations geoscheme for Africa#Western Africa, United Nations defines Western Africa as the 16 countries of Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, The Gambia, Gha ...
, where he was commissioned to raise a native force to protect British interests in the hinterland of the
Lagos Colony Lagos Colony was a British Empire, British colonial possession centred on the port of Lagos in what is now southern Nigeria. Lagos was Lagos Treaty of Cession, annexed on 6 August 1861 under the threat of force by Commander Beddingfield of HMS ...
and
Nigeria Nigeria, officially the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a country in West Africa. It is situated between the Sahel to the north and the Gulf of Guinea in the Atlantic Ocean to the south. It covers an area of . With Demographics of Nigeria, ...
against French aggression. He led the 'Race to Nikki' in 1894 and arrived in the important city in
Borgu Borgu is a region and former country split between north-west Nigeria and the northern Republic of Benin. It was partitioned between British Empire, Great Britain and France by the Anglo-French Convention of 1898. People of Borgu are known as B ...
weeks before his French rival. In August 1897, Lugard organised the West African Frontier Force and commanded it until the end of December 1899, when the disputes with France were settled, but Nikki was integrated into the colony of French Dahomey. After relinquishing command of the West African Frontier Force, Lugard was appointed High Commissioner of the newly created Protectorate of Northern Nigeria. He was present at
Mount Patti The Mount Patti Hill is a 1503 foot-tall (458 m) mountain and tourist attraction in Lokoja, Nigeria. It is famous for being the place where British journalist and writer Flora Louise Shaw (later Flora Lugard) gave Nigeria its name. The name (N ...
,
Lokoja Lokoja is a north-central city in Nigeria. It lies at the confluence of the Niger River, Niger and Benue River, Benue list of rivers of Nigeria, rivers and is the capital city of Kogi State. While the Bassa Nge, Yoruba people, Yoruba Oworo peopl ...
, and read the proclamation that established the protectorate on 1 January 1900. The portion of Northern Nigeria under effective control was then small, and Lugard's task in organising this vast territory was made more difficult by the refusal of the sultan of
Sokoto Sokoto (Hausa language, Hausa: ; Fulfulde, Fula: , ''Leydi Sokoto'') is one of the 36 states of Nigeria, located in the extreme northwest of the country. It is bounded by Niger, Republic of the Niger to the north and west for 363 km (226 m ...
and many other Fula princes to fulfill their treaty obligations. In 1903, British control over the whole
protectorate A protectorate, in the context of international relations, is a State (polity), state that is under protection by another state for defence against aggression and other violations of law. It is a dependent territory that enjoys autonomy over ...
was made possible by a successful campaign against the
Kano Emirate The Kano Emirate was a Muslim state in northern Nigeria formed in 1805 during the Fulani jihad when the Muslim Hausa people, Hausa-led Sultanate of Kano was deposed and replaced by a new emirate which became a vassal state of the Sokoto Caliph ...
and the
Sokoto Caliphate The Sokoto Caliphate (, literally: Caliphate in the Lands of Sudan), also known as the Sultanate of Sokoto, was a Sunni Islam, Sunni Muslim caliphate in West Africa. It was founded by Usman dan Fodio in 1804 during the Fula jihads, Fulani jihads ...
. When Lugard resigned as commissioner in 1906, the entire region of modern-day Nigeria had become administered under the supervision of British residents. Lugard was knighted in the 1901 New Year Honours for his service in Nigeria. He stopped slave raiding and abolished
slavery Slavery is the ownership of a person as property, especially in regards to their labour. Slavery typically involves compulsory work, with the slave's location of work and residence dictated by the party that holds them in bondage. Enslavemen ...
and the
slave trade Slave trade may refer to: * History of slavery - overview of slavery It may also refer to slave trades in specific countries, areas: * Al-Andalus slave trade * Atlantic slave trade ** Brazilian slave trade ** Bristol slave trade ** Danish sl ...
. He began developing the country by getting it surveyed and mapped, and he improved transport and communications for colonial convenience. He also reorganised the
taxation system A tax is a mandatory financial charge or levy imposed on an individual or legal entity by a governmental organization to support government spending and public expenditures collectively or to regulate and reduce negative externalities. Tax c ...
. Lugard is most importantly remembered for his political system of rule that was practised in Nigeria, called
indirect rule Indirect rule was a system of public administration, governance used by imperial powers to control parts of their empires. This was particularly used by colonial empires like the British Empire to control their possessions in Colonisation of Afri ...
, and for his contributions in the 1914 amalgamation of the Northern and Southern Protectorates of Nigeria . However, the system of indirect rule has remained criticised from several scholars for its construction of social hierarchies, imbalance of political power and forced adoption of ethnicities, which has increased ethnic conflicts. Although the 1914 amalgamation was intended to create a united nation, it is often considered a "total failure" by scholars, as no attempts were made to integrate several ethnically diverse groups.


Governor of Hong Kong

About a year, after he resigned as High Commissioner of the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria, Lugard was appointed
Governor of Hong Kong The governor of Hong Kong was the representative of the United Kingdom, British The Crown, Crown in British Hong Kong, Hong Kong from 1843 to 1997. In this capacity, the governor was president of the Executive Council of Hong Kong, Executiv ...
, a position he held until March 1912. During his tenure, Lugard proposed to return Weihaiwei to the Chinese government in return for the ceding of the rented
New Territories The New Territories (N.T., Traditional Chinese characters, Chinese: ) is one of the three areas of Hong Kong, alongside Hong Kong Island and Kowloon. It makes up 86.2% of Hong Kong's territory, and contains around half of the population of H ...
in perpetuity. However, the proposal was neither well received nor acted upon. Some believed that if the proposal were carried through, Hong Kong might forever have remained in British hands. Lugard's chief interest was education, and he was largely remembered for his efforts to the founding of the
University of Hong Kong The University of Hong Kong (HKU) is a public research university in Pokfulam, Hong Kong. It was founded in 1887 as the Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese by the London Missionary Society and formally established as the University of ...
in 1911. He became the first chancellor despite a cold reception from the
Colonial Office The Colonial Office was a government department of the Kingdom of Great Britain and later of the United Kingdom, first created in 1768 from the Southern Department to deal with colonial affairs in North America (particularly the Thirteen Colo ...
and local British companies, such as the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation. The Colonial Office called the idea of a university "Sir Frederick's pet lamb". Lugard's chief impetus from founding the university was to have it serve as a bearer of
Western culture Western culture, also known as Western civilization, European civilization, Occidental culture, Western society, or simply the West, refers to the Cultural heritage, internally diverse culture of the Western world. The term "Western" encompas ...
in
East Asia East Asia is a geocultural region of Asia. It includes China, Japan, Mongolia, North Korea, South Korea, and Taiwan, plus two special administrative regions of China, Hong Kong and Macau. The economies of Economy of China, China, Economy of Ja ...
. He expected the university, however, to adopt a politically conservative framework supportive of the colonial authorities and to refrain from teaching ideas such as
democracy Democracy (from , ''dēmos'' 'people' and ''kratos'' 'rule') is a form of government in which political power is vested in the people or the population of a state. Under a minimalist definition of democracy, rulers are elected through competitiv ...
or equality. He was financially backed by his personal friend Sir Hormusjee Naorojee Mody, who shared the same vision for the establishment of a university in Hong Kong.


Governor of Nigeria

In 1912, Lugard returned to Nigeria as Governor of the two protectorates. His mission was to combine the two colonies into one. Although controversial in
Lagos Lagos ( ; ), or Lagos City, is a large metropolitan city in southwestern Nigeria. With an upper population estimated above 21 million dwellers, it is the largest city in Nigeria, the most populous urban area on the African continent, and on ...
, where it was opposed by a large section of the political class and the media, the amalgamation did not arouse passion in the rest of the country because the people were unaware of the implications. Lugard took scant notice of public opinion, and did not feel that consensus was needed among the locals on such a serious political subject, which had such key implications for the two colonies. From 1914 to 1919, Lugard served as Governor General of the now combined colony of Nigeria. Throughout his tenure, he sought strenuously to secure the amelioration of the condition of the native people, among other means by the exclusion, wherever possible, of alcoholic liqueurs and by the suppression of slave raiding and slavery. Lugard, assisted by his indefatigable wife, Flora Shaw, concocted a legend that warped understanding of him, Nigeria and colonial rule for decades. He believed that "the typical African... is a happy, thriftless, excitable person, lacking in self control, discipline and foresight, naturally courageous, courteous and polite, full of personal vanity, with little of veracity; in brief, the virtues and defects of this race-type are those of attractive children". The funding of the Colony of Nigeria in the development of state's infrastructure such as harbours, railways and hospitals in Southern Nigeria came from revenue generated by taxes on imported alcohol. In Northern Nigeria, the revenue that allowed state development projects was less because the taxes was absent and thus funding of projects was covered from revenue generated in the south. The Adubi War occurred during his governorship. In Northern Nigeria, Lugard permitted slavery within traditional native elite families. He loathed the educated and sophisticated Africans living in the coastal regions. Lugard ran the country and spent half each year in England, where he could promote himself and was distant from realities in Africa, where subordinates had to delay decisions on many matters until he returned. He based his rule on a military system unlike William MacGregor, a doctor turned governor, who mixed with all ranks of people and listened to what was wanted. The Lugard who opposed "native education" later became involved in
Hong Kong University The University of Hong Kong (HKU) is a public research university in Pokfulam, Hong Kong. It was founded in 1887 as the Hong Kong College of Medicine for Chinese by the London Missionary Society and formally established as the University of ...
, and the man who disliked traders and businessmen became a director of a Nigerian bank. When the British government decided to raise a local militia to protect the western frontier of the Royal Niger Company's territory against the French advance from
Dahomey The Kingdom of Dahomey () was a West African List of kingdoms in Africa throughout history, kingdom located within present-day Benin that existed from approximately 1600 until 1904. It developed on the Abomey Plateau amongst the Fon people in ...
, Lugard was sent, and he successfully organised the West African Frontier Force, which he used successfully to defend not only the western but also the northern frontiers of Nigeria from French encroachment. This saved Nigeria from the assimilation issues of the French. Lugard's greatest contribution to the making of modern Nigeria was the successful amalgamation of the North and the South in 1914. Even after the amalgamation, the two parts remained as two separate countries, with separate administrations. "Though in doing this, he aimed primarily at making the wealth and seaport facilities of the South available to the North, he had in fact fashioned the political unity of the Giant of Africa". As noted earlier, the amalgamation of Nigeria helped in making Nigeria to have common telegraphs, railways, customs and excise, a
Supreme Court In most legal jurisdictions, a supreme court, also known as a court of last resort, apex court, high (or final) court of appeal, and court of final appeal, is the highest court within the hierarchy of courts. Broadly speaking, the decisions of ...
, a standard time, a common currency, and a common civil service; he introduced all necessities needed for infrastructure in a modern state. More importantly, he laid the foundations of continuous legislative assemblies in Nigeria by establishing the Nigerian Council in 1914. It consisted of the Governor, the Chief Secretary and a few nominated members who met to listen to government policies and give their advice. Unfortunately, it legislated only for the South. It could be referred to as a mock parliament because it set pace for the
Legislative Council A legislative council is the legislature, or one of the legislative chambers, of a nation, colony, or subnational division such as a province or state. It was commonly used to label unicameral or upper house legislative bodies in the Brit ...
of later years. In spite of his contributions, Lugard's work was not without faults. "He aimed at creating in Nigeria one administrative unit but he did not intend to create a Nigerian nation". Instead, his policy of isolating the North from the South, a policy that his successors maintained and has since had a hand in the present disunity of Nigeria. An example is the exclusion of the North from the Legislative Council until 1947. "Thus, it can be said that Lugard sowed the seeds of separatist tendency which has still plagued Nigerian unity". Lugard was also partly responsible for the backwardness in the education and other social services of the Northerners And this is the reason for the South's advance in education over the North. To sum it up, Lugard's attitude to Nigeria implied that he did not envisage self-government for Nigeria. He planned for perpetual
British colonialism The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates, and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom and its predecessor states. It began with the overseas possessions and trading posts establish ...
. "His system of
Indirect Rule Indirect rule was a system of public administration, governance used by imperial powers to control parts of their empires. This was particularly used by colonial empires like the British Empire to control their possessions in Colonisation of Afri ...
, his hostility towards educated Nigerians in the South, and his system of education for the North which aimed at training only the sons of the chiefs and emirs as clerks and interpreters show him as one of Britain's arch-imperialists", says K. B. C. Onwubiko. Regarding the future of British colonialism in Africa, he stated, "For two or three generations we can show the negro what we are, then we shall be asked to go away. Then we shall leave the land to those it belongs to with a feeling that they have better business friends in us than in other white men".


''The Dual Mandate in British Tropical Africa''

Lugard's ''The Dual Mandate in British Tropical Africa'' was published in 1922 and discussed
indirect rule Indirect rule was a system of public administration, governance used by imperial powers to control parts of their empires. This was particularly used by colonial empires like the British Empire to control their possessions in Colonisation of Afri ...
in colonial Africa. He argued that administration of Africa could simultaneously promote the well-being of the inhabitants and develop the resources of the continent for the benefit of mankind. According to Lugard, there were three principles of colonial administration: decentralisation (granting power to local district officers in colonies), continuity (extensive record keeping so that successors would build upon the policies of predecessors) and cooperation (building local support for the colonial government). He defended British colonial practices, in particular the system of indirect rule that he introduced in Nigeria. The task of the British, he wrote, was "to promote the commercial and industrial progress of Africa without too careful a scrutiny of the material gains to ourselves". In this work, Lugard outlined the reasons and methods that he recommended for the colonisation of Africa. Some of his justifications for establishing colonial rule included spreading Christianity and ending barbaric practices by Africans such as
human sacrifice Human sacrifice is the act of killing one or more humans as part of a ritual, which is usually intended to please or appease deity, gods, a human ruler, public or jurisdictional demands for justice by capital punishment, an authoritative/prie ...
. He also saw state-sponsored colonisation as a way to protect missionaries, local chiefs and local people from each other, as well as from foreign powers. For Lugard, it was also vital that Britain gain control of unclaimed areas before
Germany Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It lies between the Baltic Sea and the North Sea to the north and the Alps to the south. Its sixteen States of Germany, constituent states have a total popu ...
,
Portugal Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic, is a country on the Iberian Peninsula in Southwestern Europe. Featuring Cabo da Roca, the westernmost point in continental Europe, Portugal borders Spain to its north and east, with which it share ...
or
France France, officially the French Republic, is a country located primarily in Western Europe. Overseas France, Its overseas regions and territories include French Guiana in South America, Saint Pierre and Miquelon in the Atlantic Ocean#North Atlan ...
claimed the land and its resources for themselves. He realised that there were vast profits to be made through the export of resources such as rubber and through taxation of native populations as well as importers and exporters (the British taxpayer continually made a loss from the colonies in this period). In addition, those resources and inexpensive native labour (slavery having been abolished by Britain in 1833) would provide vital fuel for the industrial revolution in resource-depleted Britain, as well as monies for public works projects. Finally, Lugard reasoned that colonisation had become a fad and that to remain a global power, Britain would need to hold colonies to avoid appearing weak. William Rappard was influenced by Lugard's book. He sought to get Lugard appointed to the Permanent Mandates Commission of the
League of Nations The League of Nations (LN or LoN; , SdN) was the first worldwide intergovernmental organisation whose principal mission was to maintain world peace. It was founded on 10 January 1920 by the Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920), Paris Peace ...
.


League of Nations and abolitionist activism

Between 1922 and 1936, Lugard was the British representative on the League of Nations' Permanent Mandates Commission. Lugard saw imperial administration in moral terms and advocated for humane principles of colonial rule. He saw the role of the Permanent Mandates Commission as involving standard-setting and oversight, whereas actual administration should be left to national powers. Lugard supported General George Spafford Richardson's repressive rule of
Western Samoa Samoa, officially the Independent State of Samoa and known until 1997 as Western Samoa, is an island country in Polynesia, part of Oceania, in the South Pacific Ocean. It consists of two main islands ( Savai'i and Upolu), two smaller, inhabit ...
. Lugard criticised European settlers and Samoans who engaged in "interracial mobilization". Lugard played a key role in drafting a Commission report that exonerated Richardson's governance of Western Samoa and placed the blame of the Western Samoa unrest on the anti-colonial activist Olaf Frederick Nelson. During this period, he served first on the
Temporary Slavery Commission The Temporary Slavery Commission (TSC) was a committee of the League of Nations, inaugurated in 1924. It was the first committee of the League of Nations to address the issue of slavery and slave trade, and followed on the Brussels Anti-Slave ...
and was involved in organising the 1926 Slavery Convention. He had submitted a proposal for the convention to the British government. Despite being initially alarmed by it, the British government backed the proposal (after subjecting it to considerable redrafting), and it was eventually enacted. He served as one of the seven members of the
Committee of Experts on Slavery The Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery (ACE) was a permanent committee of the League of Nations, inaugurated in 1933. It was the first permanent slavery committee of the League of Nations, which was founded after a decade of work addre ...
(CES) of the League of Nations in 1932-1933. Lugard served on the
International Labour Organization The International Labour Organization (ILO) is a United Nations agency whose mandate is to advance social and economic justice by setting international labour standards. Founded in October 1919 under the League of Nations, it is one of the firs ...
's Committee of Experts on Native Labour from 1925 to 1941.


Beliefs

Lugard pushed for native rule in the British colonies of Africa. He reasoned that black Africans were very different from the
Europeans Europeans are the focus of European ethnology, the field of anthropology related to the various ethnic groups that reside in the states of Europe. Groups may be defined by common ancestry, language, faith, historical continuity, etc. There are ...
although he speculated on the admixture of
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or
Hamitic Hamites is the name formerly used for some North Africa, Northern and Horn of Africa peoples in the context of a Scientific racism, now-outdated model of dividing humanity into different races; this was developed originally by Europeans in suppo ...
blood arising from the advent of
Islam Islam is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the Quran, and the teachings of Muhammad. Adherents of Islam are called Muslims, who are estimated to number Islam by country, 2 billion worldwide and are the world ...
among the Hausa and Fulani. He considered that natives should act as a sort of middle manager in colonial governance. That would avoid revolt because, he believed, the native people of Africa would be more likely to follow someone who looked like them, spoke their languages and shared their customs. Olúfẹmi Táíwò argued that Lugard blocked Black Africans who had been educated in Europe from playing an active role in the development of
Colonial Nigeria Colonial Nigeria was ruled by the British Empire from the mid-nineteenth century until 1st of October 1960 when Nigeria achieved independence. Britain Lagos Treaty of Cession, annexed Lagos Colony, Lagos in 1861 and established the Oil River ...
and distrusted white "intellectuals" as much as black ones since Lugard believed that the principles they were taught in the universities were often wrong. He preferred to advance prominent Hausa and Fulani leaders from traditional structures. Lugard was an advocate for European paternalist governance over black Africans. He described them as holding "the position of a late-born child in the family of nations, and must as yet be schooled in the discipline of the nursery".


Honours

Lugard was appointed a Companion of the
Order of the Bath The Most Honourable Order of the Bath is a British order of chivalry founded by King George I of Great Britain, George I on 18 May 1725. Recipients of the Order are usually senior British Armed Forces, military officers or senior Civil Service ...
(CB) in 1895. He was
knight A knight is a person granted an honorary title of a knighthood by a head of state (including the pope) or representative for service to the monarch, the church, or the country, especially in a military capacity. The concept of a knighthood ...
ed as a Knight Commander of the
Order of St Michael and St George The Most Distinguished Order of Saint Michael and Saint George is a British order of chivalry founded on 28 April 1818 by George, Prince of Wales (the future King George IV), while he was acting as prince regent for his father, King George III ...
(KCMG) in the 1901 New Year Honours and raised to a Knight Grand Cross (GCMG) in 1911. He was appointed to the Privy Council in the 1920 New Year Honours. In 1928 he was further honoured when he was elevated to the
peerage A peerage is a legal system historically comprising various hereditary titles (and sometimes Life peer, non-hereditary titles) in a number of countries, and composed of assorted Imperial, royal and noble ranks, noble ranks. Peerages include: A ...
as Baron Lugard, of Abinger in the County of Surrey. The
Royal Geographical Society The Royal Geographical Society (with the Institute of British Geographers), often shortened to RGS, is a learned society and professional body for geography based in the United Kingdom. Founded in 1830 for the advancement of geographical scien ...
awarded him the
Founder's Medal The Founder's Medal is a medal awarded annually by the Royal Geographical Society, upon approval of the Sovereign of the United Kingdom, to individuals for "the encouragement and promotion of geographical science and discovery". Foundation From ...
in 1902 for persistent attention to African geography. A bronze bust of Lugard, created by Pilkington Jackson in 1960, is held in the
National Portrait Gallery, London The National Portrait Gallery (NPG) is an art gallery in London that houses a collection of portraits of historically important and famous British people. When it opened in 1856, it was arguably the first national public gallery in the world th ...
. Lugard Road on Victoria Peak in Hong Kong, China is named after him.


Personal life

Lugard married on 10 June 1902 Flora Shaw, daughter of Major-General George Shaw, and granddaughter of Sir Frederick Shaw, 3rd Baronet. She was a foreign correspondent for ''The Times'' and coined the place name ''Nigeria''. There were no children from the marriage. She died in January 1929. Lugard survived her by sixteen years and died on 11 April 1945, aged 87. Since he was childless, the barony became extinct. He was Cremation, cremated at Woking Crematorium.


Published works

*In 1893, Lugard published ''The Rise of Our East African Empire'', which was partially an autobiography. He was also the author of various valuable reports on Northern Nigeria issued by the Colonial Office. *''The Dual Mandate in British Tropical Africa'', 1922.


See also

* Indirect rule * Richmond Palmer * Frank Lugard Brayne * George Wilson (Chief Colonial Secretary of Uganda)


References

* * Biography, ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography''


Sources

* * * * Meyer, Karl E. and Shareen Blair Brysac. ''Kingmakers: The Invention of the Modern Middle East'' (2009) pp 59–93. * * * * * *


External links


Archives Hub:Papers of Frederick Dealtry Lugard, Baron Lugard of Abinger: 1871–1969
* {{DEFAULTSORT:Lugard, Frederick 1858 births 1945 deaths Military personnel from Worcester, England People educated at Rossall School Graduates of the Royal Military College, Sandhurst Royal Norfolk Regiment officers Royal West African Frontier Force officers British military personnel of the Second Anglo-Afghan War British Army personnel of the Mahdist War British military personnel of the Third Anglo-Burmese War Barons in the Peerage of the United Kingdom, Lugard, Frederick Lugard, 1st Baron 19th-century British explorers Companions of the Distinguished Service Order British explorers of Africa Governors of Hong Kong British governors and governors-general of Nigeria Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George Companions of the Order of the Bath Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom Vice-chancellors of the University of Hong Kong Nigeria in World War I British expatriates in Hong Kong History of Lagos 20th-century Hong Kong people 20th-century British politicians Barons created by George V British abolitionists