Frankenstein Réassemblé (comics)

''Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus'' is an 1818 Gothic novel written by English author Mary Shelley. ''Frankenstein'' tells the story of Victor Frankenstein, a young scientist who creates a sapient creature in an unorthodox scientific experiment that involved putting it together with different body parts. Shelley started writing the story when she was 18 and staying in Bath, and the first edition was published anonymously in London on 1 January 1818, when she was 20. Her name first appeared in the second edition, which was published in Paris in 1821.

Shelley travelled through Europe in 1815, moving along the river Rhine in Germany, and stopping in Gernsheim, away from Frankenstein Castle, where, about a century earlier, Johann Konrad Dippel, an alchemist, had engaged in experiments. She then journeyed to the region of Geneva, Switzerland, where much of the story takes place. Galvanism and occult ideas were topics of conversation for her companions, particularly for her lover and future husband Percy Bysshe Shelley.

In 1816, Mary, Percy, John Polidori, and Lord Byron had a competition to see who would write the best horror story.
After thinking for days, Shelley was inspired to write ''Frankenstein'' after imagining a scientist who created life and was horrified by what he had made.

''Frankenstein'' is one of the best-known works of English literature. Infused with elements of the Gothic novel and the Romantic movement, it has had a considerable influence on literature and on popular culture, spawning a complete genre of horror stories, films, and plays. Since the publication of the novel, the name Frankenstein has often been used to refer to the monster.

Plot summary

Victor Frankenstein, son of an upper-class Genevese family, spends his youth obsessed with alchemy. As he grows older, he develops an interest in modern sciences such as chemistry and electricity. After his mother Caroline dies of scarlet fever, Victor leaves home to attend the University of Ingolstadt. Through his studies, Victor discovers a new way to create life, which he uses to create a large and grotesque humanoid creature. When the creature awakens, Victor flees in terror, returning the next day to find the creature gone.

The newly conscious creature runs away, discovers fire, and learns to avoid humans, who find him frightening. He finds a hovel attached to a small house, which lets him observe a family while remaining unseen. As the family teaches their language to a foreigner, the creature also learns to speak and write. He also finds a collection of books, including ''Paradise Lost'', and learns to read. He reads some papers that had been in the clothes he had taken from Ingolstadt, through which he learns the truth of his origin and the identity of his creator. When he finally reveals himself to the family, they are horrified by his appearance and chase him away. The creature then saves a young girl from drowning, only to be shot by her father, who perceives his rescue as an attack.

Angry at humanity, the creature travels to Geneva so he can confront Victor; upon arrival, he encounter’s Victor's younger brother, William. Realizing that William belongs to the same family, the creature kills him, then frames the family's servant Justine for his death. Victor suspects his creature was responsible, but does not intervene while Justine is tried and executed. Later, while hiking on Mer de Glace, Victor encounters the creature again. The creature relays his story and asks Victor to create a female companion, which he believes will be his only chance at happiness. Victor agrees.

Victor and his friend Henry Clerval leave the European mainland for Britain, where Victor establishes a laboratory in Orkney. While working on the female creature, Victor worries about his creations giving birth, and decides to destroy the incomplete female instead. In retaliation, the original creature murders Henry. Victor suffers a mental breakdown, then returns home. Back in Geneva, Victor marries his childhood friend Elizabeth Lavenza, only for the creature to murder her on the wedding night. Days later, Victor's father Alphonse dies of grief. With no remaining family, Victor vows revenge and pursues the creature, eventually following him to the Arctic.

Chasing the creature across Arctic ice, Victor nearly dies from exhaustion and hypothermia. He is rescued by Captain Robert Walton, who is leading an expedition to the North Pole. Victor recounts his story to Walton and encourages the crew to continue their expedition; instead, they decide to abandon their journey and turn back. Victor vows to continue chasing the creature, but in his weakened state, he dies aboard the ship. As the ship leaves the Arctic, the creature comes onboard. He mourns Victor's death, tells Walton he plans to burn himself on a pyre, and then departs.

Author's background

Mary Shelley's mother, Mary Wollstonecraft, died from infection eleven days after giving birth to her. Shelley grew close to her father, William Godwin, having never known her mother. Godwin hired a nurse, who briefly cared for her and her half sister, before marrying his second wife Mary Jane Clairmont, who did not like the close bond between Shelley and her father. The resulting friction caused Godwin to favour his other children.

Shelley's father was a famous author of the time, and her education was of great importance to him, although it was not formal. Shelley grew up surrounded by her father's friends, writers, and persons of political importance, who often gathered at the family home. This inspired her authorship at an early age. Mary, at the age of sixteen, met Percy Bysshe Shelley (who later became her husband) while he was visiting her father. Godwin did not approve of the relationship between his daughter and an older, married man, so they fled to France along with her stepsister, Claire Clairmont. On 22 February 1815, Shelley gave birth prematurely to her first child, Clara, who died two weeks later.

In the summer of 1816, Mary, Percy, and Claire took a trip to visit Claire's lover, Lord Byron, in Geneva. Poor weather conditions, more akin to winter, forced Byron and the visitors to stay indoors. To help pass time, Byron suggested that he, Mary, Percy, and Byron's physician, John Polidori, have a competition to write the best ghost story to pass time stuck indoors. Mary was just eighteen years old when she won the contest with her creation of ''Frankenstein''.

Literary influences

Shelley's work was heavily influenced by that of her parents. Her father was famous for ''Enquiry Concerning Political Justice'' and her mother famous for ''A Vindication of the Rights of Woman''. Her father's novels also influenced her writing of ''Frankenstein''. These novels included ''Things as They Are; or, The Adventures of Caleb Williams'', ''St. Leon'', and ''Fleetwood''. All of these books were set in Switzerland, similar to the setting in ''Frankenstein''. Some major themes of social affections and the renewal of life that appear in Shelley's novel stem from these works she had in her possession. Other literary influences that appear in ''Frankenstein'' are '' Pygmalion et Galatée'' by Mme de Genlis, and Ovid, with the use of individuals identifying the problems with society. Ovid also inspires the use of Prometheus in Shelley's title.

The influence of John Milton's ''Paradise Lost'' and Samuel Taylor Coleridge's ''The Rime of the Ancient Mariner'' are evident in the novel. In ''The Frankenstein of the French Revolution'', author Julia Douthwaite posits that Shelley probably acquired some ideas for Frankenstein's character from Humphry Davy's book ''Elements of Chemical Philosophy'', in which he had written that,

science has ... bestowed upon man powers which may be called creative; which have enabled him to change and modify the beings around him ...

References to the French Revolution run through the novel; a likely source is 's ''Le Miroir des événemens actuels, ou la Belle au plus offrant'' (1790), a political parable about scientific progress featuring an inventor named Frankésteïn, who creates a life-sized automaton.

Both Frankenstein and the monster quote passages from Percy Shelley's 1816 poem, " Mutability", and its theme of the role of the subconscious is discussed in prose. Percy Shelley's name never appeared as the author of the poem, although the novel credits other quoted poets by name. Samuel Taylor Coleridge's poem "The Rime of the Ancient Mariner" (1798) is associated with the theme of guilt and William Wordsworth's "Tintern Abbey" (1798) with that of innocence.

Many writers and historians have attempted to associate several then-popular natural philosophers (now called physical scientists) with Shelley's work because of several notable similarities. Two of the most noted natural philosophers among Shelley's contemporaries were Giovanni Aldini, who made many public attempts at human reanimation through bio-electric Galvanism in London, and Johann Konrad Dippel, who was supposed to have developed chemical means to extend the life span of humans. While Shelley was aware of both of these men and their activities, she makes no mention of or reference to them or their experiments in any of her published or released notes.

Ideas about life and death discussed by Percy and Byron were of great interest to scientists of that time. They discussed ideas from Erasmus Darwin and the experiments of Luigi Galvani as well as James Lind. Mary joined these conversations and the ideas of Darwin, Galvani and perhaps Lind were present in her novel.

Shelley's personal experiences also influenced the themes within ''Frankenstein''. The themes of loss, guilt, and the consequences of defying nature present in the novel all developed from Mary Shelley's own life. The loss of her mother, the relationship with her father, and the death of her first child are thought to have inspired the monster and his separation from parental guidance. In a 1965 issue of ''The Journal of Religion and Health'' a psychologist proposed that the theme of guilt stemmed from her not feeling good enough for Percy because of the loss of their child.

Composition

During the rainy summer of 1816, the "Year Without a Summer", the world was locked in a long, cold volcanic winter caused by the eruption of Mount Tambora in 1815. Mary Shelley, aged 18, and her lover (and future husband), Percy Bysshe Shelley, visited Lord Byron at the Villa Diodati by Lake Geneva, in Switzerland's Alps. The weather was too cold and dreary that summer to enjoy the outdoor holiday activities they had planned, so the group retired indoors until dawn.

Sitting around a log fire at Byron's villa, the company amused themselves by reading German ghost stories translated into French from the book ''Fantasmagoriana.'' Byron proposed that they "each write a ghost story." Unable to think of a story, Mary Shelley became anxious. She recalled being asked "Have you thought of a story?" each morning, and every time being "forced to reply with a mortifying negative." During one evening in the middle of summer, the discussions turned to the nature of the principle of life. "Perhaps a corpse would be re-animated," Mary noted, "galvanism had given token of such things". It was after midnight before they retired and, unable to sleep, she became possessed by her imagination as she beheld the "grim terrors" of her "waking dream".

In September 2011, astronomer Donald Olson, after a visit to the Lake Geneva villa in the previous year and inspecting data about the motion of the moon and stars, concluded that her "waking dream" took place between 2 a.m. and 3 a.m. on 16 June 1816, several days after the initial idea by Lord Byron that they each write a ghost story.

Mary Shelley began writing what she assumed would be a short story, but with Percy Shelley's encouragement, she expanded the tale into a fully-fledged novel. She later described that summer in Switzerland as the moment "when I first stepped out from childhood into life." Shelley wrote the first four chapters in the weeks following the suicide of her half-sister Fanny. This was one of many personal tragedies that impacted Shelley's work. Shelley's first child died in infancy, and when she began composing ''Frankenstein'' in 1816, she was probably nursing her second child, who was also dead by the time of ''Frankenstein''s publication. Shelley wrote much of the book while residing in a lodging house in the centre of Bath in 1816.

Byron managed to write just a fragment based on the vampire legends he heard while travelling the Balkans, and from this John Polidori created ''The Vampyre'' (1819), the progenitor of the romantic vampire literary genre. Thus two seminal horror tales originated from the conclave.

The group talked about Enlightenment and Counter-Enlightenment ideas as well. Mary Shelley believed the Enlightenment idea that society could progress and grow if political leaders used their powers responsibly; however, she also believed the Romantic ideal that misused power could destroy society.

Shelley's manuscripts for the first three-volume edition in 1818 (written 1816–1817), as well as the fair copy for her publisher, are now housed in the Bodleian Library in Oxford. The Bodleian acquired the papers in 2004, and they belong now to the Abinger Collection. In 2008, the Bodleian published a new edition of ''Frankenstein'', edited by Charles E. Robinson, that contains comparisons of Mary Shelley's original text with Percy Shelley's additions and interventions alongside.

Frankenstein and the Monster

The Creature

Although the Creature was described in later works as a composite of whole body parts grafted together from cadavers and reanimated by the use of electricity, this description is not consistent with Shelley's work; both the use of electricity and the cobbled-together image of Frankenstein's monster were more the result of James Whale's popular 1931 film adaptation of the story and other early motion-picture works based on the creature. In Shelley's original work, Victor Frankenstein discovers a previously unknown but elemental principle of life, and that insight allows him to develop a method to imbue vitality into inanimate matter, though the exact nature of the process is left ambiguous. After a great deal of hesitation in exercising this power, Frankenstein spends two years painstakingly constructing the Creature's body (one anatomical feature at a time, from raw materials supplied by "the dissecting room and the slaughter-house"), which he then brings to life using his unspecified process.

Part of Frankenstein's rejection of his creation is the fact that he does not give him a name. Instead, Frankenstein's creation is referred to by words such as "wretch", "monster", "creature", "demon", "devil", "fiend", and "it". When Frankenstein converses with the creature, he addresses him as "vile insect", "abhorred monster", "fiend", "wretched devil", and "abhorred devil".

In the novel, the creature is compared to Adam, from the travelling exhibitio
Frankenstein: Penetrating the Secrets of Nature
the first man in the Garden of Eden. The monster also compares himself with the "fallen" angel. Speaking to Frankenstein, the monster says "I ought to be thy Adam, but I am rather the fallen angel". That angel would be Lucifer (meaning "light-bringer") in Milton's ''Paradise Lost'', which the monster has read. Adam is also referred to in the epigraph of the 1818 edition:

Some have posited the creature as a composite of Percy Shelley and Thomas Paine. If the creature's hatred for Victor and his desire to raise a child mirror Percy's filial rebelliousness and his longing to adopt children, his desire to do good and his persecution can be said to echo Paine's utopian visions and fate in England.

The Creature has often been mistakenly called Frankenstein. In 1908, one author said "It is strange to note how well-nigh universally the term 'Frankenstein' is misused, even by intelligent people, as describing some hideous monster." Edith Wharton's '' The Reef'' (1916) describes an unruly child as an "infant Frankenstein". David Lindsay's "The Bridal Ornament", published in ''The Rover'', 12 June 1844, mentioned "the maker of poor Frankenstein". After the release of Whale's cinematic ''Frankenstein'', the public at large began speaking of the Creature itself as "Frankenstein". This misnomer continued with the successful sequel ''Bride of Frankenstein'' (1935), as well as in film titles such as ''Abbott and Costello Meet Frankenstein''.

Origin of Victor Frankenstein's name

Mary Shelley maintained that she derived the name ''Frankenstein'' from a dream-vision. This claim has since been disputed and debated by scholars that have suggested alternative sources for Shelley's inspiration. The German name ''Frankenstein'' means "stone of the Franks", and is associated with various places in Germany, including Frankenstein Castle (''Burg Frankenstein'') in Darmstadt, Hesse, and Frankenstein Castle in Frankenstein, a town in the Palatinate. There is also a castle called Frankenstein in Bad Salzungen, Thuringia, and a municipality called Frankenstein in Saxony. The town of Frankenstein in Silesia (now Ząbkowice, Poland) was the site of a scandal involving gravediggers in 1606, and this has been suggested as an inspiration to the author. Finally, the name is borne by the aristocratic House of Franckenstein from Franconia.

Radu Florescu argued that Mary and Percy Shelley visited Frankenstein Castle near Darmstadt in 1814, where alchemist Johann Konrad Dippel had experimented with human bodies, and reasoned that Mary suppressed mention of her visit to maintain her public claim of originality. A literary essay by A.J. Day supports Florescu's position that Mary Shelley knew of and visited Frankenstein Castle before writing her debut novel. Day includes details of an alleged description of the Frankenstein castle in Mary Shelley's "lost journals". However, according to Jörg Heléne, Day's and Florescu's claims cannot be verified.

A possible interpretation of the name "Victor" is derived from ''Paradise Lost'' by John Milton, a great influence on Shelley (a quotation from ''Paradise Lost'' is on the opening page of ''Frankenstein'' and Shelley writes that the monster reads it in the novel). Milton frequently refers to God as "the victor" in ''Paradise Lost'', and Victor's creation of life in the novel is compared to God's creation of life in ''Paradise Lost''. In addition, Shelley's portrayal of the monster owes much to the character of Satan in ''Paradise Lost''; and, the monster says in the story, after reading the epic poem, that he empathizes with Satan's role.

Parallels between Victor Frankenstein and Mary's husband, Percy Shelley, have also been drawn. Percy Shelley was the first-born son of a wealthy country squire with strong political connections and a descendant of Sir Bysshe Shelley, 1st Baronet of Castle Goring, and Richard Fitzalan, 10th Earl of Arundel. Similarly, Victor's family is one of the most distinguished of that republic and his ancestors were counsellors and syndics. Percy's sister and Victor's adopted sister were both named Elizabeth. There are many other similarities, from Percy's usage of "Victor" as a pen name for '' Original Poetry by Victor and Cazire'', a collection of poetry he wrote with Elizabeth, to Percy's days at Eton, where he had "experimented with electricity and magnetism as well as with gunpowder and numerous chemical reactions," and the way in which Percy's rooms at Oxford were filled with scientific equipment.

Modern Prometheus

''The Modern Prometheus'' is the novel's subtitle (though modern editions now drop it, only mentioning it in introduction). Prometheus, in versions of Greek mythology, was the Titan who created humans in the image of the gods so that they could have a spirit breathed into them at the behest of Zeus. Prometheus then taught humans to hunt, but after he tricked Zeus into accepting "poor-quality offerings" from humans, Zeus kept fire from humankind. Prometheus took back the fire from Zeus to give to humanity. When Zeus discovered this, he sentenced Prometheus to be eternally punished by fixing him to a rock of Caucasus, where each day an eagle pecked out his liver, only for the liver to regrow the next day because of his immortality as a god.

As a Pythagorean, or believer in ''An Essay on Abstinence from Animal Food, as a Moral Duty'' by Joseph Ritson, Mary Shelley saw Prometheus not as a hero but rather as something of a devil, and blamed him for bringing fire to humanity and thereby seducing the human race to the vice of eating meat. Percy wrote several essays on what became known as vegetarianism including ''A Vindication of Natural Diet''.

Byron was particularly attached to the play ''Prometheus Bound'' by Aeschylus, and Percy Shelley soon wrote his own '' Prometheus Unbound'' (1820). The term "Modern Prometheus" was derived from Immanuel Kant who described Benjamin Franklin as the "Prometheus of modern times" in reference to his experiments with electricity.

Publication

Shelley completed her writing in April/May 1817, and ''Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus'' was published on 1 January 1818 by the small London publishing house Lackington, Hughes, Harding, Mavor, & Jones. It was issued anonymously, with a preface written for Mary by Percy Bysshe Shelley and with a dedication to philosopher William Godwin, her father. It was published in an edition of just 500 copies in three volumes, the standard " triple-decker" format for 19th-century first editions.

A French translation (''Frankenstein: ou le Prométhée Moderne'', translated by Jules Saladin) appeared as early as 1821. The second English edition of ''Frankenstein'' was published on 11 August 1823 in two volumes (by G. and W. B. Whittaker) following the success of the stage play '' Presumption; or, the Fate of Frankenstein'' by Richard Brinsley Peake. This edition credited Mary Shelley as the book's author on its title page.

On 31 October 1831, the first "popular" edition in one volume appeared, published by Henry Colburn & Richard Bentley. This edition was heavily revised by Mary Shelley, partially to make the story less radical. It included a lengthy new preface by the author, presenting a somewhat embellished version of the genesis of the story. This edition is the one most widely published and read now, although a few editions follow the 1818 text. Some scholars such as Anne K. Mellor prefer the original version, arguing that it preserves the spirit of Mary Shelley's vision.

Reception

Contemporary critical reviews were mixed. Walter Scott, writing in ''Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine'', praised the novel as an "extraordinary tale, in which the author seems to us to disclose uncommon powers of poetic imagination," although he was less convinced about the way in which the monster gains knowledge about the world and language. ''La Belle Assemblée'' described the novel as "very bold fiction" and the ''Edinburgh Magazine and Literary Miscellany'' hoped to see "more productions ... from this author". On the other hand, John Wilson Croker, writing anonymously in the ''Quarterly Review'', although conceding that "the author has powers, both of conception and language," described the book as "a tissue of horrible and disgusting absurdity."

The ''British Critic'' attacked the novel's flaws as the fault of the author:

The writer of it is, we understand, a female; this is an aggravation of that which is the prevailing fault of the novel; but if our authoress can forget the gentleness of her sex, it is no reason why we should; and we shall therefore dismiss the novel without further comment.

''The Literary Panorama and National Register'' attacked the novel as a "feeble imitation of Mr. Godwin's novels" produced by the "daughter of a celebrated living novelist."

Despite these reviews, ''Frankenstein'' achieved an almost immediate popular success. It became widely known, especially through melodramatic theatrical adaptations. Mary Shelley saw a production of ''Presumption; or The Fate of Frankenstein'', a play by Richard Brinsley Peake, in 1823.

Critical reception of ''Frankenstein'' has been largely positive since the mid-20th century. Major critics such as M. A. Goldberg and Harold Bloom have praised the "aesthetic and moral" relevance of the novel, although there have also been critics, such as Germaine Greer, who criticized the novel for technical and narrative defects: for example, she claimed that its three narrators all speak in the same way. In more recent years the novel has become a popular subject for psychoanalytic and feminist criticism: Lawrence Lipking states: " en the Lacanian subgroup of psychoanalytic criticism, for instance, has produced at least half a dozen discrete readings of the novel". ''Frankenstein'' has frequently been recommended on ''Five Books'', with literary scholars, psychologists, novelists, and historians citing it as an influential text. Today, the novel is generally considered to be a landmark work as one of the greatest Romantic and Gothic novels, as well as one of the first science fiction novels.

Brian Aldiss has argued for regarding it as the first true science-fiction story. In contrast to previous stories with fantastical elements resembling those of later science fiction, Aldiss states, the central character "makes a deliberate decision" and "turns to modern experiments in the laboratory" to achieve fantastic results.

Film director Guillermo del Toro describes ''Frankenstein'' as "the quintessential teenage book", noting that the feelings that "You don't belong. You were brought to this world by people that don't care for you and you are thrown into a world of pain and suffering, and tears and hunger" are an important part of the story. He adds that "it's an amazing book written by a teenage girl. It's mind-blowing." Professor of philosophy Patricia MacCormack says that the Creature addresses the most fundamental human questions: "It's the idea of asking your maker what your purpose is. Why are we here, what can we do?"

On 5 November 2019, BBC News included ''Frankenstein'' in its list of the 100 most influential novels. In 2018, Jersey Post released series of 8 stamps celebrating the 200th anniversary of ''Frankenstein''. In 2021 it was one of six classic science fiction novels by British authors selected by Royal Mail to be featured on a series of UK postage stamps.

Films, plays, and television

The 1931 film, with Boris Karloff playing the monster, is considered the most prominent portrayal of ''Frankenstein''.

See also

* Authorship of ''Frankenstein''
* ''Frankenstein'' argument
* Frankenstein complex
* ''Frankenstein in Baghdad''
* ''Frankenstein'' in popular culture
* Frankenstein's Promethean dimension
* Golem
* ''Gothic'' (film)
* Gothic aspects in Frankenstein
* Homunculus
* John Murray Spear
* List of works based on dreams

Notes

References

Sources

* Aldiss, Brian W. "On the Origin of Species: Mary Shelley". ''Speculations on Speculation: Theories of Science Fiction''. Eds. James Gunn and Matthew Candelaria. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow, 2005.
* Baldick, Chris. ''In Frankenstein's Shadow: Myth, Monstrosity, and Nineteenth-Century Writing''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987.
* Bann, Stephen, ed. ''"Frankenstein": Creation and Monstrosity''. London: Reaktion, 1994.
* Behrendt, Stephen C., ed. ''Approaches to Teaching Shelley's "Frankenstein"''. New York: MLA, 1990.
*
*
* Bohls, Elizabeth A. "Standards of Taste, Discourses of 'Race', and the Aesthetic Education of a Monster: Critique of Empire in ''Frankenstein''". ''Eighteenth-Century Life'' 18.3 (1994): 23–36.
* Botting, Fred. ''Making Monstrous: "Frankenstein", Criticism, Theory''. New York: St. Martin's, 1991.
* Chapman, D. ''That Not Impossible She: A study of gender construction and Individualism in Mary Shelley's Frankenstein'', UK: Concept, 2011.
* Clery, E. J. ''Women's Gothic: From Clara Reeve to Mary Shelley''. Plymouth: Northcote House, 2000.
* Conger, Syndy M., Frederick S. Frank, and Gregory O'Dea, eds. ''Iconoclastic Departures: Mary Shelley after "Frankenstein": Essays in Honor of the Bicentenary of Mary Shelley's Birth''. Madison, New Jersey: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1997.
* Donawerth, Jane. ''Frankenstein's Daughters: Women Writing Science Fiction''. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1997.
* Douthwaite, Julia V. "The Frankenstein of the French Revolution," chapter two o
The Frankenstein of 1790 and other Lost Chapters from Revolutionary France
. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012.
* Dunn, Richard J. "Narrative Distance in ''Frankenstein''". ''Studies in the Novel'' 6 (1974): 408–17.
* Eberle-Sinatra, Michael, ed. ''Mary Shelley's Fictions: From "Frankenstein" to "Falkner"''. New York: St. Martin's Press, 2000.
* Ellis, Kate Ferguson. ''The Contested Castle: Gothic Novels and the Subversion of Domestic Ideology''. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989.
*
* Forry, Steven Earl. ''Hideous Progenies: Dramatizations of "Frankenstein" from Mary Shelley to the Present''. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1990.
* Freedman, Carl. "Hail Mary: On the Author of ''Frankenstein'' and the Origins of Science Fiction". ''Science Fiction Studies'' 29.2 (2002): 253–64.
* Gigante, Denise. "Facing the Ugly: The Case of ''Frankenstein''". ''ELH'' 67.2 (2000): 565–87.
* Gilbert, Sandra and Susan Gubar. ''The Madwoman in the Attic: The Woman Writer and the Nineteenth-Century Literary Imagination''. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1979.
* Hay, Daisy "Young Romantics" (2010): 103.
* Heffernan, James A. W. "Looking at the Monster: ''Frankenstein'' and Film". ''Critical Inquiry'' 24.1 (1997): 133–58.
* Hodges, Devon. "''Frankenstein'' and the Feminine Subversion of the Novel". ''Tulsa Studies in Women's Literature'' 2.2 (1983): 155–64.
* Hoeveler, Diane Long. ''Gothic Feminism: The Professionalization of Gender from Charlotte Smith to the Brontës''. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1998.
* Holmes, Richard. ''Shelley: The Pursuit''. 1974. London: Harper Perennial, 2003. .
*
* Knoepflmacher, U. C. and George Levine, eds. ''The Endurance of "Frankenstein": Essays on Mary Shelley's Novel''. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979.
* Lew, Joseph W. "The Deceptive Other: Mary Shelley's Critique of Orientalism in ''Frankenstein''". ''Studies in Romanticism'' 30.2 (1991): 255–83.
* London, Bette. "Mary Shelley, ''Frankenstein'', and the Spectacle of Masculinity". ''PMLA'' 108.2 (1993): 256–67.
* Mellor, Anne K. ''Mary Shelley: Her Life, Her Fiction, Her Monsters''. New York: Methuen, 1988.
* Michaud, Nicolas, ''Frankenstein and Philosophy: The Shocking Truth'', Chicago: Open Court, 2013.
* Miles, Robert. ''Gothic Writing 1750–1820: A Genealogy''. London: Routledge, 1993.
* Milner, Andrew. ''Literature, Culture and Society''. London: Routledge, 2005, ch.5.
* O'Flinn, Paul. "Production and Reproduction: The Case of ''Frankenstein''". ''Literature and History'' 9.2 (1983): 194–213.
* Poovey, Mary. ''The Proper Lady and the Woman Writer: Ideology as Style in the Works of Mary Wollstonecraft, Mary Shelley, and Jane Austen''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984.
* Rauch, Alan. "The Monstrous Body of Knowledge in Mary Shelley's ''Frankenstein''". ''Studies in Romanticism'' 34.2 (1995): 227–53.
* Selbanev, Xtopher. "Natural Philosophy of the Soul", Western Press, 1999.
* Schor, Esther, ed. ''The Cambridge Companion to Mary Shelley''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
*
* Smith, Johanna M., ed. ''Frankenstein''. ''Case Studies in Contemporary Criticism''. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 1992.
* Spark, Muriel. ''Mary Shelley''. London: Cardinal, 1987. .
* Stableford, Brian. "''Frankenstein'' and the Origins of Science Fiction". ''Anticipations: Essays on Early Science Fiction and Its Precursors''. Ed. David Seed. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1995.
*
* Tropp, Martin. ''Mary Shelley's Monster''. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1976.
* Veeder, William. ''Mary Shelley & Frankenstein: The Fate of Androgyny''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986.
* Williams, Anne. ''The Art of Darkness: A Poetics of Gothic''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995.

Further reading

* , review of:
:* Mary Shelley, ''Frankenstein, Or, The Modern Prometheus: Annotated for Scientists, Engineers, and Creators of All Kinds'', edited by David H. Guston, Ed Finn, and Jason Scott Robert, MIT Press, 277 pp.
:* Mary Shelley, ''The New Annotated Frankenstein'', edited and with a foreword and notes by Leslie S. Klinger, Liveright, 352 pp.), ''The New York Review of Books'', vol. LXIV, no. 20 (21 December 2017), pp. 38, 40–41.

Editions

1818 text

* Shelley, Mary ''Frankenstein: 1818 text'' (Oxford University Press, 2009). Edited with an introduction and notes by Marilyn Butler.
* Shelley, Mary ''Frankenstein: The 1818 Text'' (Penguin Books, 2018). Edited with an introduction by Charlotte Gordon.
*Mary Shelley,
Frankenstein, Or, The Modern Prometheus: Annotated for Scientists, Engineers, and Creators of All Kinds
', edited by David H. Guston, Ed Finn, and Jason Scott Robert, MIT Press, 277 pp.

1831 text

* Fairclough, Peter (ed.) ''Three Gothic Novels: Walpole / Castle of Otranto, Beckford / Vathek, Mary Shelley / Frankenstein'' (Penguin English Library, 1968). With an introductory essay by Mario Praz.
* Shelley, Mary ''Frankenstein'' (Oxford University Press, 2008). Edited with an introduction and notes by M. K. Joseph.

Differences between 1818 and 1831 text

Shelley made several alterations in the 1831 edition including:

*The epigraph from Milton's ''Paradise Lost'' found in the 1818 original has been removed.
*Chapter one is expanded and split into two chapters.
*Elizabeth's origin is changed from Victor's cousin to being an orphan.
*Victor is portrayed more sympathetically in the original text. In the 1831 edition, however, Shelley is critical of his decisions and actions.
*Shelley removed many references to scientific ideas which were popular around the time she wrote the 1818 edition of the book.
*Characters in the 1831 version have some dialogue removed entirely while others receive new dialogue.

External links

Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley: Chronology and Resources
at Romantic Circles
*

Frankenstein
at SparkNotes

Editions
*
*

Frankenstein
at Romantic Circles
:: online texts of 1818 and 1831 editions and copious annotations
*
*

Sources
* Shelley's notebooks with her handwritten draft of ''Frankenstein''
:
Volume one


Volume two

Reception


a review by Percy Bysshe Shelley

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