Fermentation (wine)

The process of fermentation in winemaking turns grape juice into an alcoholic beverage. During fermentation, yeasts transform sugars present in the juice into ethanol and carbon dioxide (as a by-product). In winemaking, the temperature and speed of fermentation are important considerations as well as the levels of oxygen present in the must at the start of the fermentation. The risk of stuck fermentation and the development of several wine faults can also occur during this stage, which can last anywhere from 5 to 14 days for ''primary fermentation'' and potentially another 5 to 10 days for a '' secondary fermentation''. Fermentation may be done in stainless steel tanks, which is common with many white wines like Riesling, in an open wooden vat, inside a wine barrel and inside the wine bottle itself as in the production of many sparkling wines.

History

The natural occurrence of fermentation means it was probably first observed long ago by humans.H. Johnson: ''Vintage: The Story of Wine'' p. 16. Simon and Schuster 1989 . The earliest uses of the word "fermentation" in relation to winemaking was in reference to the apparent "boiling" within the must that came from the anaerobic reaction of the yeast to the sugars in the grape juice and the release of carbon dioxide. The Latin ''fervere'' means, literally, ''to boil''. In the mid-19th century, Louis Pasteur noted the connection between yeast and the process of the fermentation in which the yeast act as catalyst and mediator through a series of a reaction that convert sugar into alcohol. The discovery of the Embden–Meyerhof–Parnas pathway by Gustav Embden, Otto Fritz Meyerhof and Jakub Karol Parnas in the early 20th century contributed more to the understanding of the complex chemical processes involved in the conversion of sugar to alcohol.J. Robinson (ed) ''"The Oxford Companion to Wine"'' Third Edition, p. 267. Oxford University Press 2006 . In the early 2010s, New Jersey based wine tech company GOfermentor invented an automated winemaking device that ferments in single-use liners similar to the single-use bioreactor.

Process

In winemaking, there are distinctions made between ''ambient yeast''s which are naturally present in wine cellars, vineyards and on the grapes themselves (sometimes known as a grape's "bloom" or "blush") and ''cultured yeast'' which are specifically isolated and inoculated for use in winemaking. The most common genera of wild yeasts found in winemaking include '' Candida, Klöckera/Hanseniaspora, Metschnikowiaceae, Pichia'' and '' Zygosaccharomyces''. Wild yeasts can produce high-quality, unique-flavored wines; however, they are often unpredictable and may introduce less desirable traits to the wine, and can even contribute to spoilage. Few yeast, and lactic and acetic acid bacterial colonies naturally live on the surface of grapes, but traditional wine makers, particularly in Europe, advocate use of ambient yeast as a characteristic of the region's '' terroir''; nevertheless, many winemakers prefer to control fermentation with predictable cultured yeast. The cultured yeasts most commonly used in winemaking belong to the ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' (also known as "sugar yeast") species. Within this species are several hundred different strains of yeast that can be used during fermentation to affect the heat or vigor of the process and enhance or suppress certain flavor characteristics of the varietal. The use of different strains of yeasts is a major contributor to the diversity of wine, even among the same grape variety.Jancis Robinson (ed): ''"The Oxford Companion to Wine"'' Third Edition, pp. 778–79. Oxford University Press 2006 . Alternative, non-''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'', yeasts are being used more prevalently in the industry to add greater complexity to wine. After a winery has been in operation for a number of years, few yeast strains are actively involved in the fermentation process. The use of active dry yeasts reduces the variety of strains that appear in spontaneous fermentation by outcompeting those strains that are naturally present.

The addition of cultured yeast normally occurs with the yeast first in a dried or "inactive" state and is reactivated in warm water or diluted grape juice prior to being added to the must. To thrive and be active in fermentation, the yeast needs access to a continuous supply of carbon, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus as well as access to various vitamins and minerals. These components are naturally present in the grape must but their amount may be corrected by adding nutrients to the wine, in order to foster a more encouraging environment for the yeast. Newly formulated time-release nutrients, specifically manufactured for wine fermentations, offer the most advantageous conditions for yeast. Oxygen is needed as well, but in wine making, the risk of oxidation and the lack of alcohol production from oxygenated yeast requires the exposure of oxygen to be kept at a minimum.Jancis Robinson (ed): ''"The Oxford Companion to Wine"'', Third Edition p. 779. Oxford University Press 2006 .

Upon the introduction of active yeasts to the grape must, phosphates are attached to the sugar and the six-carbon sugar molecules begin to be split into three-carbon pieces and go through a series of rearrangement reactions. During this process, the carboxylic carbon atom is released in the form of carbon dioxide with the remaining components becoming acetaldehyde. The absence of oxygen in this anaerobic process allows the acetaldehyde to be eventually converted, by reduction, to ethanol. During the conversion of acetaldehyde, a small amount is converted, by oxidation, to acetic acid which, in excess, can contribute to the wine fault known as volatile acidity (vinegar taint). After the yeast has exhausted its life cycle, they fall to the bottom of the fermentation tank as sediment known as lees.Jancis Robinson (ed): ''"The Oxford Companion to Wine"'', Third Edition p. 268. Oxford University Press 2006 . Yeast ceases its activity whenever all of the sugar in must has been converted into other chemicals or whenever the alcohol content has reached 15% alcohol per unit volume; a concentration strong enough to halt the enzymatic activity of almost all strains of yeast.

Other compounds involved

The metabolism of amino acids and breakdown of sugars by yeasts has the effect of creating other biochemical compounds that can contribute to the flavor and aroma of wine. These compounds can be considered " volatile" like aldehydes, ethyl acetate, ester, fatty acids,