Faʻafafine (; ) are natal males who align with a

third gender Third gender or third sex is an identity recognizing individuals categorized, either by themselves or by society, as neither a man nor a woman. Many gender systems around the world include three or more genders, deriving the concept either from ...

or feminine

gender role A gender role, or sex role, is a social norm deemed appropriate or desirable for individuals based on their gender or sex. Gender roles are usually centered on conceptions of masculinity and femininity. The specifics regarding these gendered ...

Samoa Samoa, officially the Independent State of Samoa and known until 1997 as Western Samoa, is an island country in Polynesia, part of Oceania, in the South Pacific Ocean. It consists of two main islands (Savai'i and Upolu), two smaller, inhabited ...

. Faʻafafine are not assigned the role at birth, nor raised as girls due to a lack of daughters, as is often claimed in western media. Rather, their femininity emerges in early childhood, and Samoans recognize them as distinct from typical boys. Faʻafafine are androphilic (attracted to males) and are usually very feminine. They comprise up to 3.5% of the natal male population, similar to the number of androphilic natal males in the west. Most self-identify as faʻafafine, rather than men, while a small number identify as women. However, they recognize that they are distinct from females. Faʻafafine enjoy relatively high levels of acceptance in Samoa. They can be seen in all areas of Samoan society, whether assisting as caregivers or working in government. Samoa's former Prime Minister Malielegaoi spoke publicly about the value of faʻafafine in Samoan society.

History and terminology

The word ''faʻafafine'' includes the causative

prefix A prefix is an affix which is placed before the stem of a word. Particularly in the study of languages, a prefix is also called a preformative, because it alters the form of the word to which it is affixed. Prefixes, like other affixes, can b ...

''faʻa–'', meaning "in the manner of", and the word ''fafine'', meaning "woman". It is a

cognate In historical linguistics, cognates or lexical cognates are sets of words that have been inherited in direct descent from an etymological ancestor in a common parent language. Because language change can have radical effects on both the s ...

of related words in other

Polynesia Polynesia ( , ) is a subregion of Oceania, made up of more than 1,000 islands scattered over the central and southern Pacific Ocean. The indigenous people who inhabit the islands of Polynesia are called Polynesians. They have many things in ...

n languages, such as , the , and . Ultimately, Western terms like gay and transgender overlap but do not align exactly with Samoan gender terms found in the traditional culture of Samoa. The Samoan slang word ''mala'' (devastation) is a less-common term for ''faʻafafine'', originating in fundamentalist-influenced

homophobia Homophobia encompasses a range of negative attitudes and feelings toward homosexuality or people who identify or are perceived as being lesbian, Gay men, gay or bisexual. It has been defined as contempt, prejudice, aversion, hatred, or ant ...

and

transphobia Transphobia consists of negative attitudes, feelings, or actions towards transgender or transsexual people, or transness in general. Transphobia can include fear, aversion, hatred, violence or anger towards people who do not conform to socia ...

. Strong evidence points to Samoa being under

matriarchal Matriarchy is a social system in which positions of power and privilege are held by women. In a broader sense it can also extend to moral authority, social privilege, and control of property. While those definitions apply in general English, ...

rule for centuries before contact with Europeans. Queen Salamasina, holder of four paramount chief titles, ascended the throne in the 16th century through the shrewd maneuvering of the powerful female chieftains around her. Samoa continues to value the leadership roles of women and third gender people. There is no restriction on the transfer of chiefly titles to women or ''fa'afafine'', and there is a substantial list of past and present ''faʻafafine'' chiefs. The history of ''faʻafafine'' is difficult to trace.

Nafanua Nafanua was a historical ''aliʻi'' (Paramount Chief/Queen) and ''toa'' (warrior) of Samoa from the Sā Tonumaipeʻa clan, who took the four ''pāpā'' (district) titles, the leading ''aliʻi'' titles of Samoa. After her death she became a goddes ...

, the female warrior and chief of Samoan early history, is often held up as an icon of ''faʻafafine'' and ''faʻatane'' (natal females who align with a masculine gender role). According to Dolgoy's recorded interviews with ''faʻafafine'' from the 1980s, Johnny Fruitcake was a popular ''faʻafafine'' during the American military occupation of American Samoa in World War II, and Anita (Tony Schwenke) was the founder of Hollywood, a tailoring shop and house of refuge for ''faʻafafine'' in Apia in the 1960s–1970s. Since the 1980s, the Samoan diaspora has given faʻafafine a higher profile outside Samoa. Paul L. Vasey, Professor of Psychology at the

University of Lethbridge The University of Lethbridge (also known as uLethbridge, uLeth, and U of L) is a public comprehensive and research university located in Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada, with a second campus in Calgary, Alberta. Founded in the liberal arts traditio ...

, has claimed that the existence of ''faʻafafine'' supports the

evolutionary psychology Evolutionary psychology is a theoretical approach in psychology that examines cognition and behavior from a modern evolutionary perspective. It seeks to identify human psychological adaptations with regard to the ancestral problems they evolved ...

hypothesis of a gene that directs kin-directed altruism, which proposes that androphilia could be passed down because it is societally advantageous to have non-traditional roles. The hypothesis contends that the existence of androphilia may serve the evolutionary purpose of providing

avunculate The avunculate, sometimes called avunculism or avuncularism, is any social institution where a special relationship exists between an uncle and his sisters' children. This relationship can be formal or informal, depending on the society. Early a ...

support for related kin, meaning that families that include ''faʻafafine'' and members in other non-traditional roles, such as unmarried aunts and uncles, would have more time and resources to dedicate to the success of their kin.

Role in Samoan society

The existence of a third gender is so well-accepted in Samoan culture that most Samoans state that they have friendships with at least one ''faʻafafine''. However, ''faʻafafine'' are not fully accepted in all parts of the community, such as by some fundamentalist Christian groups and traditional leaders. Samoan popular culture views faʻafafine as hard-working and dedicated to the family, in the Samoan tradition of ''

tautua Tautua is a word in Samoan that expresses the cultural tradition of service to the family or ''aiga'' and specifically to the ''ali'i'' or titles of the family; it can also mean any service of an individual to a greater cause. Tautua is reflected ...

'' or service to family. Ideas of the family in Samoa and Polynesia include all the members of a ''sa'', or communal family within the ''

faʻamatai ''Faʻamatai'' is the indigenous political ('chiefly') system of Samoa, central to the organization of Samoan society. It is the traditional indigenous form of governance in both Samoas, comprising American Samoa and the Independent State of ...

'' family system. Traditionally, ''faʻafafine'' follow the training of the women's daily work in an ''aiga'' (Samoan family group). ''Faʻafafine'' state that they "loved" engaging in feminine activities as children, such as playing with female peers, playing female characters during role play, dressing in feminine clothes, and playing with female gender-typical toys. This is in contrast to women who stated that they merely "liked" engaging in those activities as children. Some ''faʻafafine'' recall believing they were girls in childhood. In Samoa, there is very seldom ridicule or displeasure towards a biologically male child who states that they are a girl. One study showed only a minority of parents (20 per cent) tried to stop their ''faʻafafine'' children from engaging in feminine behaviour. Being pushed into the male gender role is upsetting to many ''faʻafafine''. A significant number stated that they "hated" masculine play, such as rough games and sports, even more than females did as children. ''Faʻafafine'' have sexual relationships almost exclusively with men who do not identify as ''faʻafafine''.

Society of Faʻafafine in American Samoa and the Samoa Faʻafafine Association

The Society of Faʻafafine in American Samoa or () (SOFIAS) describes itself as an organisation dedicated to balancing both Samoan values with western influences and aims to promote a positive attitude toward the Samoan ''faʻafafine'' community. It fosters collaboration between ''faʻafafine'' and LGBTQI+ communities in American Samoa, the Asia Pacific region, and the world. The Miss SOFIAS pageant has been held in Pago Pago, American Samoa, since 1979. The Samoa Fa'afafine Association (SFA), based in Apia, was founded in 2006. It works closely with government, churches, and youth organisations, supporting community projects for the ''fa'afafine'' community, but also for elders and youth in Samoa. SFA is also active on the international level, working with the United Nations and Pacific regional NGOs, on behalf of the ''faʻafafine'', transgender, and LGBT communities of the Pacific Islands. They also work with media organisations to promote an equitable representation of ''faʻafafine''. The SFA, with ''fa'afafine'' lawyers Alex Suʻa and Phineas Hartson Matautia, have initiated legislative activity on issues of

LGBT rights in Samoa Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people in Samoa face legal challenges not faced by non-LGBT residents. Sexual contact between men is illegal, punishable by up to seven years’ imprisonment, but the law is not enforced. Samoan ...

. Their efforts to repeal homophobic and transphobic laws implemented during the period of New Zealand colonial rule have met with partial success.

Same-sex marriage Same-sex marriage, also known as gay marriage, is the marriage of two people of the same legal Legal sex and gender, sex. marriage between same-sex couples is legally performed and recognized in 38 countries, with a total population of 1.5 ...

for ''faʻafafine'' is still unlawful in Samoa, and despite legalisation in the U.S., it is still not recognised in the US Territory of

American Samoa American Samoa is an Territories of the United States, unincorporated and unorganized territory of the United States located in the Polynesia region of the Pacific Ocean, South Pacific Ocean. Centered on , it is southeast of the island count ...

Notable faʻafafine

* Edward Cowley a.k.a. "Buckwheat" – a drag performer and television personality based in

Auckland Auckland ( ; ) is a large metropolitan city in the North Island of New Zealand. It has an urban population of about It is located in the greater Auckland Region, the area governed by Auckland Council, which includes outlying rural areas and ...

, worked with New Zealand AIDS Foundation, champion bodybuilder. * Yuki Kihara – a contemporary artist whose work has been featured in numerous museum exhibitions art galleries around the world. Her solo exhibition, Shigeyuki Kihara: Living Photographs (2008–9), was the

Metropolitan Museum of Art The Metropolitan Museum of Art, colloquially referred to as the Met, is an Encyclopedic museum, encyclopedic art museum in New York City. By floor area, it is the List of largest museums, third-largest museum in the world and the List of larg ...

's first exhibition of contemporary Samoan art. Kihara is co-editor of the 2018 book ''Samoan Queer Lives''. * Marion Malena – a multiple beauty pageant winner and performer from American Samoa currently living in Seattle. She hosts American Samoa: Through the Years. * Fuimaono Karl Pulotu-Endemann – a medical professional, Justice of the Peace, and gay activist from New Zealand. In the

2001 New Year Honours The 2001 New Year Honours List is one of the annual New Year Honours, a part of the British honours system, where New Year's Day, 1 January, is marked in several Commonwealth countries by appointing new members of orders of chivalry and recipie ...

, Pulotu-Endemann was made a

Member of the New Zealand Order of Merit The New Zealand Order of Merit () is an order of merit in the New Zealand royal honours system. It was established by royal warrant on 30 May 1996 by Elizabeth II, Queen of New Zealand, "for those persons who in any field of endeavour, have ...

for services to Public Health. * Jaiyah Saelua – American Samoan soccer player. Saelua was the first faʻafafine player to compete in a men's

FIFA World Cup The FIFA World Cup, often called the World Cup, is an international association football competition among the senior List of men's national association football teams, men's national teams of the members of the FIFA, Fédération Internatio ...

qualifier. Saelua featured in a UK documentary '' Next Goal Wins''. In the feature film ''Next Goal Wins'' (2023 film) based on the events in the documentary, Saelua is played by faʻafafine actor Kaimana. * Dan Taulapapa McMullin – poet, painter, filmmaker. Artist book: ''The Healer's Wound: A Queer Theirstory of Polynesia'', published by Pu'uhonua Society and Tropic Editions of Honolulu. Exhibitions and screenings at Honolulu Museum of Art, De Young Museum, Museum of Contemporary Native Art, Bishop Museum, Metropolitan Museum, United Nations, Museum of Modern Art. Collection of poems: ''Coconut Milk'' (American Library Association Top Ten LGBT Books of the Year). * Leilani Tominiko – first openly transgender professional wrestler in New Zealand. * Amao Leota Lu – performance artist, activist, community leader

Fictional faʻafafine

* Half-man half-girl, an unnamed character in

Albert Wendt Albert Tuaopepe Wendt (born 27 October 1939) is a Samoan poet and writer who lives in New Zealand. He is one of the most influential writers in Oceania. His notable works include ''Sons for the Return Home'', published in 1973 (adapted into a ...

's novel ''Flying Fox in a Freedom Tree'' (1979) * Muli and Pipi, in Dan Taulapapa McMullin's poem ''The Bat'' (1993) which received a Poets&Writers Award * Sugar Shirley, a character in Sia Figiel's novel ''Where We Once Belonged'' (1996) *'Vili Atafa, a character in the '' Pasifika'' play ''A Frigate Bird Sings'' (1996) by

Oscar Kightley Oscar Vai To'elau Kightley (born 14 September 1969) is a Samoan-New Zealand actor, television presenter, writer, journalist, director, and comedian. He acted in and co-wrote the successful 2006 film '' Sione's Wedding''. Biography Kightley was ...

David Fane David Rodney Fane (born 28 December 1966) is a New Zealand actor. Early life and education Fane was educated at St. Pauls College in Grey Lynn. Career Fane got into acting quite late and trained at the New Zealand Drama School Toi Whakaa ...

and

Nathaniel Lees Maiava Nathaniel Lees (born 20 July 1952) is a New Zealand theatre actor and director and film actor of Samoan descent, best known for film roles in ''The Matrix Reloaded'', ''The Matrix Revolutions'' and '' The Lord of the Rings: The Two Tower ...

* Sinalela (2001), a fictional character in the short film ''Sinalela'' by Dan Taulapapa McMullin, awarded Best Short Film in the Honolulu Rainbow Film Festival * Faafafine (2001), an autobiographical solo performance piece by Brian Fuata * Brother Ken in ''

bro'Town ''bro'Town'' is a New Zealand Adult animation, adult animated sitcom that aired on TV3 (New Zealand), TV3 from 22 September 2004 to 24 May 2009. It starred David Fane, Mario Gaoa, Shimpal Lelisi and Oscar Kightley. Overview The main charact ...

'' (2004-2009), a school principal * Jerry the Faʻafafine (2011), a thematic figure (influenced by the poetry of Taulapapa) in an artwork series by Tanu Gago

References

Citations

Sources

* Dolgoy, Reevan. 2000
''The Search for Recognition and Social Movement Emergence,'' Towards an Understanding of the Transformation of the Faafafine of Samoa.
(From interviews of the 1970s, 1980s, 1990s). University of Alberta. * Schmidt, Johanna. 2001

''Intersections'', Issue 6. * Taulapapa McMullin, Dan. 2004. ''A Drag Queen Named Pipi''. Tinfish Press, Honolulu. * Vanessa, Taliga Venasio Sele. 2008. ''Memoirs of a Samoan, Catholic, and Fa'afafine''. * Feuʻu, Poiva Junior Ashleigh. 2013.
''Ia e Ola Malamalama i lou Faasinomaga'', A Comparative Study of the Faafafine of Samoa and the Whakawahine of Aotearoa-New Zealand
Victoria University of Wellington. * Taulapapa McMullin, Dan. 2013.

University of Arizona Press. * Thompson, Pausa Kaio. 2017
''Saili Le Tofa: A Search for New Wisdom:'' Sexuality and Faʻafafine in the Samoan Context.
Columbia University. * Kihara, Yuki, and Taulapapa McMullin, Dan. 2018
"Samoan Queer Lives"
Little Island Press, Auckland, Aotearoa-New Zealand.

External links

Facebook page for S.F.A. Samoan Faafafine Association Incorporated, Apia, Samoa.

* ttps://www.facebook.com/groups/97170793479/ Facebook page for UTOPIA San Francisco.* Montague, James. 2011
"Transgender Player Helps American Samoa to First International Soccer Win"
New York Times, November 25, 2011. * {{Sexual identities Gender in Oceania Gender systems Culture of Samoa Third gender Transgender topics in Oceania Society of Samoa Samoan words and phrases Culture of American Samoa LGBTQ in Samoa LGBTQ in American Samoa Indigenous LGBTQ culture