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, better known as ''Encyclopédie'' (), was a general
encyclopedia An encyclopedia is a reference work or compendium providing summaries of knowledge, either general or special, in a particular field or discipline. Encyclopedias are divided into article (publishing), articles or entries that are arranged Alp ...
published in
France France, officially the French Republic, is a country located primarily in Western Europe. Overseas France, Its overseas regions and territories include French Guiana in South America, Saint Pierre and Miquelon in the Atlantic Ocean#North Atlan ...
between 1751 and 1772, with later supplements, revised editions, and translations. It had many writers, known as the Encyclopédistes. It was edited by
Denis Diderot Denis Diderot (; ; 5 October 171331 July 1784) was a French philosopher, art critic, and writer, best known for serving as co-founder, chief editor, and contributor to the along with Jean le Rond d'Alembert. He was a prominent figure during th ...
and, until 1759, co-edited by
Jean le Rond d'Alembert Jean-Baptiste le Rond d'Alembert ( ; ; 16 November 1717 – 29 October 1783) was a French mathematician, mechanician, physicist, philosopher, and music theorist. Until 1759 he was, together with Denis Diderot, a co-editor of the ''Encyclopé ...
. The ''Encyclopédie'' is most famous for representing the thought of the Enlightenment. According to Denis Diderot in the article "Encyclopédie", the ''Encyclopédie'' aim was "to change the way people think" and for people to be able to inform themselves and to know things. He and the other contributors advocated for the
secularization In sociology, secularization () is a multilayered concept that generally denotes "a transition from a religious to a more worldly level." There are many types of secularization and most do not lead to atheism or irreligion, nor are they automatica ...
of learning away from the
Jesuits The Society of Jesus (; abbreviation: S.J. or SJ), also known as the Jesuit Order or the Jesuits ( ; ), is a religious order (Catholic), religious order of clerics regular of pontifical right for men in the Catholic Church headquartered in Rom ...
. Diderot wanted to incorporate all of the world's knowledge into the ''Encyclopédie'' and hoped that the text could disseminate all this information to the public and future generations. Thus, it is an example of
democratization of knowledge The democratization of knowledge is the acquisition and spread of knowledge amongst a wider part of the population, not just privileged elites such as clergy and academics. Libraries, in particular public libraries, and modern information techn ...
. It was also the first encyclopedia to include contributions from many named contributors, and it was the first general encyclopedia to describe the mechanical arts. In the first publication, seventeen folio volumes were accompanied by detailed engravings. Later volumes were published without the engravings, in order to better reach a wide audience within Europe.


Origins

The ''Encyclopédie'' was originally conceived as a French translation of Ephraim Chambers's '' Cyclopaedia'' (1728).Magee, p. 124 Ephraim Chambers had first published his ''Cyclopaedia, or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences'' in two volumes in London in 1728, following several dictionaries of arts and sciences that had emerged in Europe since the late 17th century. Robert Shackleton
The ''Encyclopedie''
in: ''Proceedings, American Philosophical Society'' (vol. 114, No. 5, 1970. p. 39)
This work became quite renowned, and four editions were published between 1738 and 1742. An Italian translation appeared between 1747 and 1754. In France a member of the banking family Lambert had started translating Chambers into French, but in 1745 the expatriate Englishman John Mills and German Gottfried Sellius were the first to actually prepare a French edition of Ephraim Chambers's ''Cyclopaedia'' for publication, which they entitled ''Encyclopédie''. Early in 1745 a prospectus for the ''Encyclopédie'' was published to attract subscribers to the project. This four page prospectus was illustrated by Jean-Michel Papillon, and accompanied by a plan, stating that the work would be published in five volumes from June 1746 until the end of 1748. The text was translated by Mills and Sellius, and it was corrected by an unnamed person, who appears to have been
Denis Diderot Denis Diderot (; ; 5 October 171331 July 1784) was a French philosopher, art critic, and writer, best known for serving as co-founder, chief editor, and contributor to the along with Jean le Rond d'Alembert. He was a prominent figure during th ...
. The prospectus was reviewed quite positively and cited at some length in several journals. The ''Mémoires pour l'histoire des sciences et des beaux arts'' journal was lavish in its praise: "here are two of the greatest efforts undertaken in literature in a very long time" (''voici deux des plus fortes entreprises de Littérature qu'on ait faites depuis long-temps''). The ''Mercure Journal'' in June 1745, printed a 25-page article that specifically praised Mills' role as translator; the ''Journal'' introduced Mills as an English scholar who had been raised in France and who spoke both French and English as a native. The ''Journal'' reported that Mills had discussed the work with several academics, was zealous about the project, had devoted his fortune to support this enterprise, and was the sole owner of the publishing privilege. However, the cooperation fell apart later on in 1745. André le Breton, the publisher commissioned to manage the physical production and sales of the volumes, cheated Mills out of the subscription money, claiming for example that Mills's knowledge of French was inadequate. In a confrontation Le Breton physically assaulted Mills. Mills took Le Breton to court, but the court decided in Le Breton's favour. Mills returned to England soon after the court's ruling. For his new editor, Le Breton settled on the mathematician Jean Paul de Gua de Malves. Among those hired by Malves were the young
Étienne Bonnot de Condillac Étienne Bonnot de Condillac ( ; ; 30 September 1714 – 2 August or 3 August 1780) was a French philosopher, epistemologist, and Catholic priest, who studied in such areas as psychology and the philosophy of the mind. Biography He was born a ...
,
Jean le Rond d'Alembert Jean-Baptiste le Rond d'Alembert ( ; ; 16 November 1717 – 29 October 1783) was a French mathematician, mechanician, physicist, philosopher, and music theorist. Until 1759 he was, together with Denis Diderot, a co-editor of the ''Encyclopé ...
, and
Denis Diderot Denis Diderot (; ; 5 October 171331 July 1784) was a French philosopher, art critic, and writer, best known for serving as co-founder, chief editor, and contributor to the along with Jean le Rond d'Alembert. He was a prominent figure during th ...
. Within thirteen months, in August 1747, Gua de Malves was fired for being an ineffective leader. Le Breton then hired Diderot and d'Alembert to be the new editors. Diderot would remain as editor for the next 25 years, seeing the ''Encyclopédie'' through to its completion; d'Alembert would leave this role in 1758. As d'Alembert worked on the ''Encyclopédie'', its title expanded. As of 1750, the full title was ''Encyclopédie, ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, par une société de gens de lettres, mis en ordre par M. Diderot de l'Académie des Sciences et Belles-Lettres de Prusse, et quant à la partie mathématique, par M. d'Alembert de l'Académie royale des Sciences de Paris, de celle de Prusse et de la Société royale de Londres.'' ("Encyclopedia: or a Systematic Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Crafts, by a Company of Persons of Letters, edited by M. Diderot of the Academy of Sciences and '' Belles-lettres'' of Prussia: as to the Mathematical Portion, arranged by M. d'Alembert of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Paris, of the Academy of Sciences in Prussia and of the Royal Society of London.") The title page was amended as d'Alembert acquired more titles.


Publication

The work consisted of 28 volumes, with 71,818 articles and 3,129 illustrations. The first seventeen volumes were published between 1751 and 1765; eleven volumes of plates were finished by 1772. Engraver Robert Bénard provided at least 1,800 plates for the work. The ''Encyclopédie'' sold 4,000 copies during its first twenty years of publication and earned a profit of 2 million livres for its investors. Because of its occasional radical contents, the ''Encyclopédie'' caused much controversy in conservative circles, and after the publication of the second volume, it was briefly suspended from publishing by royal edict of 1752. Joly de Fleury accused it of "destroying royal authority, fomenting a spirit of Independence and revolt, and...laying the foundations of an edifice of error, for the corruption of morals and religion, and the promotion of unbelief." Following the publication of the seventh volume, on the initiative of the Parlement of Paris, the French government suspended the encyclopedia's ''privilège'' in 1759.Magee, p. 125 Despite these issues, work continued "in secret," partially because the project had highly placed supporters, such as Malesherbes and Madame de Pompadour. The authorities deliberately ignored the continued work; they thought their official ban was sufficient to appease the church and other enemies of the project. During the "secretive" period, Diderot accomplished a work of subterfuge. The title pages of volumes 1 through 7, published between 1751 and 1757, claimed Paris as the place of publication. However, the title pages of the subsequent text volumes, 8 through 17, published together in 1765, show ''Neufchastel'' as the place of publication.
Neuchâtel Neuchâtel (, ; ; ) is a list of towns in Switzerland, town, a Municipalities of Switzerland, municipality, and the capital (political), capital of the cantons of Switzerland, Swiss canton of Neuchâtel (canton), Neuchâtel on Lake Neuchâtel ...
is safely across the French border in what is now part of Switzerland but which was then an independent principality, where official production of the ''Encyclopédie'' was secure from interference by agents of the French state. In particular, regime opponents of the ''Encyclopédie'' could not seize the production plates for the ''Encyclopédie'' in Paris because those printing plates ostensibly existed only in Switzerland. Meanwhile, the actual production of volumes 8 through 17 quietly continued in Paris. In 1775, Charles Joseph Panckoucke obtained the rights to reissue the work. He issued five volumes of supplementary material and a two-volume index from 1776 to 1780. Some scholars include these seven "extra" volumes as part of the first full issue of the ''Encyclopédie'', for a total of 35 volumes, although they were not written or edited by the original authors. From 1782 to 1832, Panckoucke and his successors published an expanded edition of the work in some 166 volumes as the '' Encyclopédie Méthodique''. That work, enormous for its time, occupied a thousand workers in production and 2,250 contributors.


Contributors

Since the objective of the editors of the ''Encyclopédie'' was to gather all the knowledge in the world, Diderot and D'Alembert knew they would need various contributors to help them with their project. Many of the philosophes (
intellectuals An intellectual is a person who engages in critical thinking, research, and Human self-reflection, reflection about the nature of reality, especially the nature of society and proposed solutions for its normative problems. Coming from the wor ...
of the French Enlightenment) contributed to the ''Encyclopédie'', including Diderot himself,
Voltaire François-Marie Arouet (; 21 November 169430 May 1778), known by his ''Pen name, nom de plume'' Voltaire (, ; ), was a French Age of Enlightenment, Enlightenment writer, philosopher (''philosophe''), satirist, and historian. Famous for his wit ...
, Rousseau, and
Montesquieu Charles Louis de Secondat, baron de La Brède et de Montesquieu (18 January 168910 February 1755), generally referred to as simply Montesquieu, was a French judge, man of letters, historian, and political philosopher. He is the principal so ...
. The most prolific contributor was Louis de Jaucourt, who wrote 17,266 articles between 1759 and 1765, or about eight per day, representing a full 25% of the ''Encyclopédie''. The publication became a place where these contributors could share their ideas and interests, still, as Frank Kafker has argued, the Encyclopedists were not a unified group: Following is a list of notable contributors with their area of contribution (for a more detailed list, see Encyclopédistes): *
Jean Le Rond d'Alembert Jean-Baptiste le Rond d'Alembert ( ; ; 16 November 1717 – 29 October 1783) was a French mathematician, mechanician, physicist, philosopher, and music theorist. Until 1759 he was, together with Denis Diderot, a co-editor of the ''Encyclopé ...
– editor; science (especially mathematics), contemporary affairs, philosophy, religion, among others * Claude Bourgelat – manège, farriery * André le Breton – chief publisher; article on printer's ink *
Louis-Jean-Marie Daubenton Louis Jean-Marie Daubenton (; 29 May 1716 – 1 January 1800) was a French natural history, naturalist and contributor to the ''Encyclopédie, Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers''. Biography Daubent ...
– natural history *
Denis Diderot Denis Diderot (; ; 5 October 171331 July 1784) was a French philosopher, art critic, and writer, best known for serving as co-founder, chief editor, and contributor to the along with Jean le Rond d'Alembert. He was a prominent figure during th ...
– chief editor; economics, mechanical arts, philosophy, politics, religion, among others * Baron d'Holbach – science (chemistry, mineralogy), politics, religion, among others * Chevalier Louis de Jaucourt – economics, literature, medicine, politics, bookbinding, among others * Jean-Baptiste de La Chapelle – mathematics *
Abbé ''Abbé'' (from Latin , in turn from Greek , , from Aramaic ''abba'', a title of honour, literally meaning "the father, my father", emphatic state of ''abh'', "father") is the French word for an abbot. It is also the title used for lower-ranki ...
André Morellet – theology, philosophy *
Montesquieu Charles Louis de Secondat, baron de La Brède et de Montesquieu (18 January 168910 February 1755), generally referred to as simply Montesquieu, was a French judge, man of letters, historian, and political philosopher. He is the principal so ...
– part of the article "Goût" ("Taste") * François Quesnay – articles on tax farmers and grain *
Jean-Jacques Rousseau Jean-Jacques Rousseau (, ; ; 28 June 1712 – 2 July 1778) was a Republic of Geneva, Genevan philosopher (''philosophes, philosophe''), writer, and composer. His political philosophy influenced the progress of the Age of Enlightenment through ...
– music, political theory *
Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laune Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Baron de l'Aulne ( ; ; 10 May 172718 March 1781), commonly known as Turgot, was a French economist and statesman. Sometimes considered a physiocrat, he is today best remembered as an early advocate for economic liber ...
– economics, etymology, philosophy, physics *
Voltaire François-Marie Arouet (; 21 November 169430 May 1778), known by his ''Pen name, nom de plume'' Voltaire (, ; ), was a French Age of Enlightenment, Enlightenment writer, philosopher (''philosophe''), satirist, and historian. Famous for his wit ...
– history, literature, philosophy Due to the controversial nature of some of the articles, several of its editors were sent to jail.


Contents and controversies


Structure

Like most encyclopedias, the ''Encyclopédie'' attempted to collect and summarize human knowledge in a variety of fields and topics, ranging from philosophy to theology to science and the arts. The ''Encyclopédie'' was controversial for reorganizing knowledge based on
human Humans (''Homo sapiens'') or modern humans are the most common and widespread species of primate, and the last surviving species of the genus ''Homo''. They are Hominidae, great apes characterized by their Prehistory of nakedness and clothing ...
reason Reason is the capacity of consciously applying logic by drawing valid conclusions from new or existing information, with the aim of seeking the truth. It is associated with such characteristically human activities as philosophy, religion, scien ...
instead of by nature or theology. Knowledge and intellect branched from the three categories of human thought, whereas all other perceived aspects of knowledge, including theology, were simply branches or components of these human-made categories. The introduction to the ''Encyclopédie'', D'Alembert's " Preliminary Discourse", is considered an important exposition of Enlightenment ideals. Among other things, it presents a taxonomy of human knowledge (see Fig. 3), which was inspired by
Francis Bacon Francis Bacon, 1st Viscount St Alban (; 22 January 1561 – 9 April 1626) was an English philosopher and statesman who served as Attorney General and Lord Chancellor of England under King James I. Bacon argued for the importance of nat ...
's '' The Advancement of Learning''. The three main branches of knowledge are: "Memory"/History, "Reason"/Philosophy, and "Imagination"/Poetry. This tree of knowledge was created to help readers evaluate the usefulness of the content within the ''Encyclopédie'', and to organize its content. Notable is the fact that theology is ordered under "philosophy" and that "Knowledge of God" is only a few nodes away from "
divination Divination () is the attempt to gain insight into a question or situation by way of an occultic ritual or practice. Using various methods throughout history, diviners ascertain their interpretations of how a should proceed by reading signs, ...
" and "
black magic Black magic (Middle English: ''nigromancy''), sometimes dark magic, traditionally refers to the use of Magic (paranormal), magic or supernatural powers for evil and selfish purposes. The links and interaction between black magic and religi ...
".


Religious and political controversies

The authors of the ''Encyclopédie'' challenged religious authority. The authors, especially Diderot and d'Alembert, located religion within a system of reason and philosophy. They did not reject all religious claims, but believed theology and notions of
God In monotheistic belief systems, God is usually viewed as the supreme being, creator, and principal object of faith. In polytheistic belief systems, a god is "a spirit or being believed to have created, or for controlling some part of the un ...
must be proven. Louis de Jaucourt therefore harshly criticized superstition as an intellectual error in his article on the topic. The writers further doubted the authenticity of presupposed historical events cited in the Bible and questioned the validity of miracles, such as the Resurrection. However, some contemporary scholars argue the skeptical view of miracles in the ''Encyclopédie'' may be interpreted in terms of "
Protestant Protestantism is a branch of Christianity that emphasizes Justification (theology), justification of sinners Sola fide, through faith alone, the teaching that Salvation in Christianity, salvation comes by unmerited Grace in Christianity, divin ...
debates about the cessation of the charismata." These challenges led to suppression from church and state authorities. The ''Encyclopédie'' and its contributors endured many attacks and attempts at censorship by the clergy or other censors, which threatened the publication of the project as well as the authors themselves. The King's Council suppressed the ''Encyclopédie'' in 1759. The
Catholic Church The Catholic Church (), also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the List of Christian denominations by number of members, largest Christian church, with 1.27 to 1.41 billion baptized Catholics Catholic Church by country, worldwid ...
, under
Pope Clement XIII Pope Clement XIII (; ; 7 March 1693 â€“ 2 February 1769), born Carlo della Torre di Rezzonico, was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 6 July 1758 to his death in February 1769. He was installed on 16 July 1758. ...
, placed it on its list of banned books. Prominent intellectuals criticized it, most famously Lefranc de Pompignan at the
French Academy French may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to France ** French language, which originated in France ** French people, a nation and ethnic group ** French cuisine, cooking traditions and practices Arts and media * The French (band), ...
. A playwright, Charles Palissot de Montenoy, wrote a play called ''Les Philosophes'' to criticize the ''Encyclopédie''. When Abbé André Morellet, one of the contributors to the ''Encyclopédie'', wrote a mock preface for it, he was sent to the
Bastille The Bastille (, ) was a fortress in Paris, known as the Bastille Saint-Antoine. It played an important role in the internal conflicts of France and for most of its history was used as a state prison by the kings of France. It was stormed by a ...
due to allegations of libel. To defend themselves from controversy, the encyclopedia's articles wrote of theological topics in a mixed manner. Some articles supported orthodoxy, and some included overt criticisms of Christianity. To avoid direct retribution from censors, writers often hid criticism in obscure articles or expressed it in ironic terms. Nonetheless, the contributors still openly attacked the Catholic Church in certain articles with examples including criticizing excess festivals, monasteries, and celibacy of the clergy.


Politics and society

The ''Encyclopédie'' is often seen as an influence for the French Revolution because of its emphasis on Enlightenment political theories. Diderot and other authors, in famous articles such as "Political Authority", emphasized the shift of the origin of political authority from divinity or heritage to the people. This Enlightenment ideal, espoused by Rousseau and others, advocated that people have the right to consent to their government in a form of social contract. Another major, contentious component of political issues in the ''Encyclopédie'' was personal or natural rights. Articles such as "Natural Rights" by Diderot explained the relationship between individuals and the general will. The natural state of humanity, according to the authors, is barbaric and unorganized. To balance the desires of individuals and the needs of the general will, humanity requires civil society and laws that benefit all persons. Writers, to varying degrees, criticized
Thomas Hobbes Thomas Hobbes ( ; 5 April 1588 – 4 December 1679) was an English philosopher, best known for his 1651 book ''Leviathan (Hobbes book), Leviathan'', in which he expounds an influential formulation of social contract theory. He is considered t ...
' notions of a selfish humanity that requires a sovereign to rule over it. In terms of economics, the ''Encyclopédie'' expressed favor for
laissez-faire ''Laissez-faire'' ( , from , ) is a type of economic system in which transactions between private groups of people are free from any form of economic interventionism (such as subsidies or regulations). As a system of thought, ''laissez-faire'' ...
ideals or principles of economic liberalism. Articles concerning economics or markets, such as "Economic Politics", generally favored free competition and denounced monopolies. Articles often criticized guilds as creating monopolies and approved of state intervention to remove such monopolies. The writers advocated extending laissez-faire principles of liberalism from the market to the individual level, such as with privatization of education and opening of careers to all levels of wealth.


Science and technology

At the same time, the ''Encyclopédie'' was a vast compendium of knowledge, notably on the technologies of the period, describing the traditional craft tools and processes. Much information was taken from the '' Descriptions des Arts et Métiers''. These articles applied a scientific approach to understanding the mechanical and production processes, and offered new ways to improve machines to make them more efficient. Diderot felt that people should have access to "useful knowledge" that they can apply to their everyday life.


Influence

The ''Encyclopédie'' played an important role in the intellectual foment leading to the French Revolution. "No encyclopaedia perhaps has been of such political importance, or has occupied so conspicuous a place in the civil and literary history of its century. It sought not only to give information, but to guide opinion", wrote the 1911 ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. In ''The Encyclopédie and the Age of Revolution'', a work published in conjunction with a 1989 exhibition of the ''Encyclopédie'' at the
University of California, Los Angeles The University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) is a public university, public Land-grant university, land-grant research university in Los Angeles, California, United States. Its academic roots were established in 1881 as a normal school the ...
, Clorinda Donato writes the following: While many contributors to the ''Encyclopédie'' had no interest in radically reforming French society, the ''Encyclopédie'' as a whole pointed that way. The ''Encyclopédie'' denied that the teachings of the Catholic Church could be treated as authoritative in matters of science. The editors also refused to treat the decisions of political powers as definitive in intellectual or artistic questions. Some articles talked about changing social and political institutions that would improve their society for everyone. Given that Paris was the intellectual capital of Europe at the time and that many European leaders used French as their administrative language, these ideas had the capacity to spread. The ''Encyclopédie''s influence continues today. Historian Dan O'Sullivan compares it to
Wikipedia Wikipedia is a free content, free Online content, online encyclopedia that is written and maintained by a community of volunteers, known as Wikipedians, through open collaboration and the wiki software MediaWiki. Founded by Jimmy Wales and La ...
:


Statistics

Approximate size of the ''Encyclopédie'': * 17 volumes of articles, issued from 1751 to 1765 * 11 volumes of illustrations, issued from 1762 to 1772 * 18,000 pages of text * 75,000 entries **44,000 main articles **28,000 secondary articles **2,500 illustration indices * 20,000,000 words in total Print run: 4,250 copies (note: even single-volume works in the 18th century seldom had a print run of more than 1,500 copies).


Quotations

* "The goal of an encyclopedia is to assemble all the knowledge scattered on the surface of the earth, to demonstrate the general system to the people with whom we live, & to transmit it to the people who will come after us, so that the works of centuries past is not useless to the centuries which follow, that our descendants, by becoming more learned, may become more virtuous & happier, & that we do not die without having merited being part of the human race." (''Encyclopédie'', Diderot) * "Reason is to the philosopher what grace is to the Christian... Other men walk in darkness; the philosopher, who has the same passions, acts only after reflection; he walks through the night, but it is preceded by a torch. The philosopher forms his principles on an infinity of particular observations. He does not confuse truth with plausibility; he takes for truth what is true, for forgery what is false, for doubtful what is doubtful, and probable what is probable. The philosophical spirit is thus a spirit of observation and accuracy." (''Philosophers'', Dumarsais) * "If exclusive privileges were not granted, and if the financial system would not tend to concentrate wealth, there would be few great fortunes and no quick wealth. When the means of growing rich is divided between a greater number of citizens, wealth will also be more evenly distributed; extreme poverty and extreme wealth would be also rare." (''Wealth'', Diderot) * " Aguaxima, a plant growing in Brazil and on the islands of South America. This is all that we are told about it; and I would like to know for whom such descriptions are made. It cannot be for the natives of the countries concerned, who are likely to know more about the aguaxima than is contained in this description, and who do not need to learn that the aguaxima grows in their country. It is as if you said to a Frenchman that the pear tree is a tree that grows in France, in Germany, etc. It is not meant for us either, for what do we care that there is a tree in Brazil named aguaxima, if all we know about it is its name? What is the point of giving the name? It leaves the ignorant just as they were and teaches the rest of us nothing. If all the same I mention this plant here, along with several others that are described just as poorly, then it is out of consideration for certain readers who prefer to find nothing in a dictionary article or even to find something stupid than to find no article at all." (''Aguaxima'', Diderot)


Facsimiles

Readex Microprint Corporation, New York, 1969. 5 volumes. The full text and images reduced to four double-spread pages of the original appearing on one folio-sized page of this printing. Later released by the Pergamon Press, New York and Paris with .


See also

*
Democratization of knowledge The democratization of knowledge is the acquisition and spread of knowledge amongst a wider part of the population, not just privileged elites such as clergy and academics. Libraries, in particular public libraries, and modern information techn ...


References


Citations


Bibliography

* Blom, Philipp, ''Enlightening the world: Encyclopédie, the book that changed the course of history'', New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005, * * Brewer, Daniel, "The ''Encyclopédie'': Innovation and Legacy" in ''New Essays on Diderot'', edited by James Fowler, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011, * Burke, Peter, ''A social history of knowledge: from Gutenberg to Diderot'', Malden: Blackwell Publishers Inc., 2000, * Curran, Andrew. ''Diderot and the Art of Thinking Freely''. Other Press (Random House), 2019, * Darnton, Robert. ''The Business of Enlightenment: A Publishing History of the Encyclopédie, 1775-1800''. Cambridge: Belknap, 1979. * Hunt, Lynn, ''The Making of the West: Peoples and Cultures: A Concise History: Volume II: Since 1340'', Second Edition, Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2007, * Kramnick, Isaac, "Encyclopédie" in ''The Portable Enlightenment Reader'', edited by Isaac Kramnick, Toronto: Penguin Books, 1995, * Lough, John. ''The Encyclopédie''. New York: D. McKay, 1971. * Magee, Bryan, ''The Story of Philosophy'', New York: DK Publishing, Inc., 1998, * O'Sullivan, Dan. ''Wikipedia: A New Community of Practice?'' Farnham, Surrey, 2009, . * Roche, Daniel. "Encyclopedias and the Diffusion of Knowledge." ''The Cambridge History of Eighteenth-century Political Thought''. By Mark Goldie and Robert Wokler. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2006. 172–94. * Spielvogel, Jackson J, ''Western Civilization'', Boston: Wadsworth Cengage Learning, 2011,


Further reading

* d'Alembert, Jean Le Rond. ''Preliminary discourse to the Encyclopedia of Diderot'', translated by Richard N. Schwab, 1995. * Darnton, Robert. "The Encyclopédie wars of prerevolutionary France." ''American Historical Review'' 78.5 (1973): 1331–1352
online
* Donato, Clorinda, and Robert M. Maniquis, eds. ''The Encyclopédie and the Age of Revolution''. Boston: G. K. Hall, 1992. * ''ENCICLOPEDIA DEGLI ILLUMINISTI - Antologia tecnica e scientifica'' (in Italian language), edited by Claudio Pierini, Cierre Grafica, Verona 2022. * ''Encyclopédie ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers'', Editions Flammarion, 1993. * Grimsley. Ronald. ''Jean d'Alembert'' (1963) * Hazard, Paul. ''European thought in the eighteenth century from Montesquieu to Lessing'' (1954). pp. 199–224 * Kafker, Frank A. and Serena L. Kafker. ''The Encyclopedists as individuals: a biographical dictionary of the authors of the Encyclopédie'' (1988) * Lough, John. ''Essays on the Encyclopédie of Diderot and d'Alembert'' Oxford UP, 1968. * Pannabecker, John R

1994. With bibliography.


External links

* * *
Digitized version of the ''Encyclopédie''Diderot
– search engine in tribute to Diderot
University of Chicago on-line version
with an English interface and th
dates of publication1762">Guide to the Engraving "Aiguiller-Bonnetier" from Diderot's Encyclopedia 1762''Encyclopedia of Diderot and d'Alembert ''Collaborative Translation Project
currently contains a growing collection of articles translated into English (3,053 articles and sets of plates as of September 30, 2020).
Online Books Page presentation of the first edition

The Encyclopédie
BBC Radio 4 discussion with Judith Hawley, Caroline Warman and David Wootton (''In Our Time'', Oct. 26, 2006) {{DEFAULTSORT:Encyclopedie 1751 non-fiction books 18th-century encyclopedias Age of Enlightenment Encyclopedie (Diderot and d'Alembert) Modern philosophical literature Philosophy of science literature Science studies Scientific Revolution Censored books