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The Empire of China, also known in historiography as the Hongxian Monarchy (), was a short-lived attempt by Chinese president
Yuan Shikai Yuan Shikai (; 16 September 18596 June 1916) was a Chinese general and statesman who served as the second provisional president and the first official president of the Republic of China, head of the Beiyang government from 1912 to 1916 and ...
from late 1915 to early 1916 to reinstate the monarchy in China, with himself as
emperor The word ''emperor'' (from , via ) can mean the male ruler of an empire. ''Empress'', the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife (empress consort), mother/grandmother (empress dowager/grand empress dowager), or a woman who rules ...
. The attempt ultimately failed, set back the republican cause by several years, and led China into a period of fracture and conflict among various local warlords.


Background

In response to Japan's "
Twenty-One Demands The Twenty-One Demands (; ) was a set of demands made during the World War I, First World War by the Empire of Japan under Prime Minister of Japan, Prime Minister Ōkuma Shigenobu to the Government of the Chinese Republic, government of the Re ...
", China signed the "Treaty Concerning Southern Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia" and the "Treaty Concerning Shandong" after more than three months of negotiations. In June 1915, the treaty texts were exchanged. Later, there was a sudden rumor in Japanese newspapers that Yuan Shikai intended to proclaim himself emperor. Although Yuan Shikai strongly denied it, the statement that "republicanism is not suitable for China's national conditions" gradually spread in society. On July 6, Yuan Shikai appointed 10 people including Yang Du and
Liang Qichao Liang Qichao (Chinese: 梁啓超; Wade–Giles: ''Liang2 Chʻi3-chʻao1''; Yale romanization of Cantonese, Yale: ''Lèuhng Kái-chīu''; ) (February 23, 1873 – January 19, 1929) was a Chinese politician, social and political activist, jour ...
as members of the Constitution Drafting Committee to draft a new constitution again, which was expected to be completed in November of that year. On 3 August, Professor Goodnow, an American constitutional consultant arranged for Yuan Shikai by Charles Eliot, the former president of Harvard University who was familiar with Chinese affairs, published "The Republic and the Prince", stating: "...most The people's intelligence is not very noble...The change from autocracy to a republic is such a sudden move that it is difficult to expect good results...The issue of presidential succession has not been resolved...someday or This kind of problem leads to disasters, if it is not extinguished immediately, or it may be tamed to the point of destroying China's independence... If China uses a monarchy, it is more suitable than a republic, and there is almost no doubt about this." On 19 August 1915, Yang Du joined forces with Sun Yujun, Li Xiehe, Hu Ying, Liu Shipei and
Yan Fu Yan Fu (; courtesy name Ji Dao (); 8 January 1854 – 27 October 1921) was a Chinese military officer, newspaper editor, translator, and writer. He is most known for introducing Western ideas to China during the late 19th century. Life On Janua ...
to establish a preparatory committee, stating that "Republicanism does not apply to China." More and more "petition groups" wrote petitions demanding a change in the state system. There are also some voices of opposition. For example, Liang Qichao, leader of the Progressive Party and former justice minister, published "The So-Called Issues with the State System" in the monthly "Greater China" magazine, insisting on his consistent opposition to the change of the state system. However, the Preparatory Committee published a large number of articles supporting the implementation of a constitutional monarchy. Yang Du believed that the country must be "fixed as one" (under unified leadership) in order to be stable. He argued that only in a stable environment can the country establish a constitution and gradually become stronger and stronger. He put forward two arguments to prove that only the implementation of constitutional monarchy can save China: First, Chinese people had a low level of education, and it is difficult for a republic to establish a constitution. Only a monarch can establish a constitution. Rather than a republic and a true autocracy, it is better to establish a constitutional monarch in a legitimate manner. Second, unrest is prone to occur when a republic elects a president. He said: "Unless the disadvantages of competing for the head of state are eliminated first, the country will never have peace. The only plan is to have President Yi as the monarch and establish the head of a country in an absolutely uncontestable position. A common man can hardly stop the chaos." In addition, Yuan Shikai received the "National Protector Envoy Encouraging Jin to Proclaim Emperor", which was signed by governors of all provinces in the country, including Yunnan representatives
Cai E Cai E (; 18 December 1882 – 8 November 1916) was a Chinese revolutionary leader and general. He was born Cai Genyin () in Shaoyang, Hunan, and his courtesy name was Songpo (). Cai eventually became an influential warlord in Yunnan ( Yunn ...
and
Tang Jiyao Tang Jiyao () (August 14, 1883 – May 23, 1927) was a Chinese general and warlord of Yunnan during the Warlord Era of early Republican China. He was military governor of Yunnan from 1913–1927. Life Tang was born in Huize county in 188 ...
, who later launched a war to protect the country against Yuan Shikai. The persuasion document reads:
... Zhigui and others have truly seen China's national conditions. Unless they resolutely abandon democracy and use the monarch, it will not be enough to establish long-term public security. Therefore, they use joint words to persuade the head of state, pay attention to public opinion, and support correct opinions, so that the country's system can be fundamentally solved and the country's foundation can be solved as soon as possible. Determine the fundamental status...
The "Preparatory Committee" established on 23 August convened provincial civil and military officials and chambers of commerce to Beijing to discuss state affairs. Except for a few of the civil and military officials who expressed support for the republic, most of them expressed the need to change the state system. On 25 August, Cai E led the soldiers to petition for imperialism. Yuan Shikai's son Yuan Keding also forged the " Shuntian Times" to create an atmosphere in which the Japanese Empire supported Yuan Shikai 's claim to the throne.


National Congress

On 1 September 1915, the Senate held an opening ceremony. Shen Yunpei, Zhou Jiayan, Yang Zanxu and others petitioned to change the state system. In the following days, petition groups supporting the monarchy submitted petitions to the Senate, setting off a wave of petitions for the implementation of a constitutional monarchy. Faced with the increasing number of public opinion groups (i.e., petition groups) claiming to represent public opinion and supporting Yuan Shikai's ascension to the throne, on 6 September, Yuan Shikai sent Yang Shiqi to the Senate Acting Legislative Yuan to read out his opinion: "As the president sees it, reforming the state system, there are many longitudes and latitudes, so we should be cautious; if we do it in a hurry, we may be hindered. The president has the responsibility to maintain the overall situation and thinks it is inappropriate." The trend seemed to subside slightly, but on the 14th, Shen Yunpei, Wu Zesheng, Zhao Ti and others made a second petition, and Liang Shiyi and others even established the "National Petition Federation" on the 19th to encourage the organization of a petition group and submit a third petition to the Senate, demanding a national meeting. At the conference, representatives from the whole country are elected to decide on state issues. On 6 October, the Senate acting as the Legislative Yuan passed the "Organic Law of the National Congress", which was promulgated and implemented by Yuan Shikai two days later. Then, 1,993 national representatives were elected nationwide. At 9 a.m. on 11 December, the national representatives voted on the change of state system. As a result, the National Congress unanimously approved the constitutional monarchy. At about 11 o'clock in the morning, the representatives of the provinces requested Yuan Shikai to be the emperor of the Chinese Empire for the first time. Yuan declined, citing his lack of virtue and incompetence. At 6 o'clock in the afternoon, the representatives asked Yuan to be the emperor again. On 12 December, Yuan accepted the second recommendation from the representatives, but said hypocritically:
Secondly, the establishment of Hongji is a heavy matter. It should not be carried out in a hurry, which will cause waste. All ministries and departments should be ordered to make detailed preparations for their own affairs. Once the preparations are completed, the petition will be implemented.
Yuan did not immediately ascend the throne, but had already secretly established a ceremony preparation office on 29 November to prepare for the enthronement and select a date to ascend the throne. Zhu Qiqian also supervised the construction of various palaces in the Forbidden City. Yuan's legal advisor, Ariga Nagao, drafted the "New Imperial Code" based on the "Japanese Imperial Model":
#The traditional descendants of the great emperor of the Chinese Empire last for eternity. #The throne of the great emperor is traditionally the eldest son of the crown prince. If the crown prince has a relationship, the title is passed down to the grandson of the crown prince. If there is a relationship between the direct emperor and the grandson, then the emperor's second son will be appointed as the crown prince. #The great emperor of the Chinese Empire is the great emperor of the five ethnic groups of Han, Manchu, Mongolia, Hui and Tibet. Princesses and princesses can marry subjects of the five ethnic groups. #From the royal family down to the prince, as for the clan, the laws and crimes are punished according to the same laws as the common people. #Princes and princes may serve as naval or army officers, and may not organize political parties or serve as important political officials. #Abolish the eunuch system forever. #Establish female officials in the palace and abolish the system of selecting palace maids forever. #The system of tributes from all parties shall be permanently abolished (except that tributes from Manchu, Mongolian, Hui, and Tibetan princes and princes during annual pilgrimages are still allowed to be processed as usual). #Royal ceremonial matters shall be in charge of the ministers of the palace. #No relatives of the emperor are allowed to engage in business or compete with the common people for profit.
On December 21, 22 and 23, Yuan Shikai conferred five-level knighthoods on provincial generals, patrol envoys, military envoys, garrison envoys, division commanders and those with military power (details below). On the 31st, it was announced that the following year would be changed to the first year of Hongxian, taking the meaning of "carrying forward the Constitution", and planned to change the country's name to the Chinese Empire, and the presidential palace to be changed to Xinhua Palace (today's
Zhongnanhai Zhongnanhai () is a compound that houses the offices of and serves as a residence for the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the State Council of the People's Republic of China, State Council. It was a former imperial gard ...
).


Prelude and formation

After
Yuan Shikai Yuan Shikai (; 16 September 18596 June 1916) was a Chinese general and statesman who served as the second provisional president and the first official president of the Republic of China, head of the Beiyang government from 1912 to 1916 and ...
was installed as the
second The second (symbol: s) is a unit of time derived from the division of the day first into 24 hours, then to 60 minutes, and finally to 60 seconds each (24 × 60 × 60 = 86400). The current and formal definition in the International System of U ...
Provisional Great President of the
Republic of China Taiwan, officially the Republic of China (ROC), is a country in East Asia. The main geography of Taiwan, island of Taiwan, also known as ''Formosa'', lies between the East China Sea, East and South China Seas in the northwestern Pacific Ocea ...
established by
Sun Yat-sen Sun Yat-senUsually known as Sun Zhongshan () in Chinese; also known by Names of Sun Yat-sen, several other names. (; 12 November 186612 March 1925) was a Chinese physician, revolutionary, statesman, and political philosopher who founded the Republ ...
, he took various steps to consolidate his power and remove opposition leaders from office. Both Sun and Yuan were "modernizers", but Sun was considered a "radical revolutionary", while Yuan a "conservative reformer". To secure his own power he collaborated with various European powers as well as
Japan Japan is an island country in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean off the northeast coast of the Asia, Asian mainland, it is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan and extends from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea ...
. Around August 1915, he instructed Yang Du ''et al.'' to canvass support for a return of the
monarchy A monarchy is a form of government in which a person, the monarch, reigns as head of state for the rest of their life, or until abdication. The extent of the authority of the monarch may vary from restricted and largely symbolic (constitutio ...
. On 11 December 1915, an assembly unanimously elected him as Emperor. Yuan ceremonially declined, but "relented" and immediately agreed when the National Assembly petitioned again that day.Kuo T'ing-i et al. ''Historical Annals of the ROC (1911–1949).'' Vol 1, pp. 207–41. On 12 December, Yuan, supported by his son Yuan Keding, declared the Empire of China with himself as the "Great Emperor of the Chinese Empire" ( zh, s=, t=中華帝國大皇帝, p=Zhōnghuá Dìguó Dà Huángdì), taking the
era name A regnal year is a year of the reign of a sovereign, from the Latin meaning kingdom, rule. Regnal years considered the date as an ordinal, not a cardinal number. For example, a monarch could have a first year of rule, a second year of rule, a t ...
Hongxian ( zh, s=, t=洪憲, p=Hóngxiàn, "Promote the constitution"). However, Yuan, now known as the Hongxian Emperor, delayed the accession rites until 1 January 1916. He had
Manchu The Manchus (; ) are a Tungusic peoples, Tungusic East Asian people, East Asian ethnic group native to Manchuria in Northeast Asia. They are an officially recognized Ethnic minorities in China, ethnic minority in China and the people from wh ...
clothes removed from culture and had Han clothes revived but had put some changes to it. He wore new Han clothes to attend a dress rehearsal, but it was sabotaged by his Korean concubine. The
Aisin Gioro The House of Aisin-Gioro is a Manchu clan that ruled the Later Jin dynasty (1616–1636), the Qing dynasty (1636–1912), and Manchukuo (1932–1945) in the history of China. Under the Ming dynasty, members of the Aisin Gioro clan served as chie ...
family of the
Qing dynasty The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing, was a Manchu-led Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China and an early modern empire in East Asia. The last imperial dynasty in Chinese history, the Qing dynasty was preceded by the ...
, then living in the
Forbidden City The Forbidden City () is the Chinese Empire, imperial Chinese palace, palace complex in the center of the Imperial City, Beijing, Imperial City in Beijing, China. It was the residence of 24 Ming dynasty, Ming and Qing dynasty, Qing dynasty L ...
, were officially reported as "approving" of Yuan's accession as emperor, and even as proposing a "royal marriage" of Yuan's daughter to the former Qing Emperor
Puyi Puyi (7 February 190617 October 1967) was the final emperor of China, reigning as the eleventh monarch of the Qing dynasty from 1908 to 1912. When the Guangxu Emperor died without an heir, Empress Dowager Cixi picked his nephew Puyi, aged tw ...
.


Reaction

The year 1916 was to be "Hongxian Year 1" () rather than " Republic Year 5" (), but the Hongxian Emperor was opposed by not only the revolutionaries, but far more importantly by his subordinate military commanders, who believed that Yuan's assumption of the monarchy would allow him to rule without depending on the support of the military. Province after province rebelled after his inauguration, starting with
Yunnan Yunnan; is an inland Provinces of China, province in Southwestern China. The province spans approximately and has a population of 47.2 million (as of 2020). The capital of the province is Kunming. The province borders the Chinese provinces ...
, led by the emperor's governor
Cai E Cai E (; 18 December 1882 – 8 November 1916) was a Chinese revolutionary leader and general. He was born Cai Genyin () in Shaoyang, Hunan, and his courtesy name was Songpo (). Cai eventually became an influential warlord in Yunnan ( Yunn ...
and general
Tang Jiyao Tang Jiyao () (August 14, 1883 – May 23, 1927) was a Chinese general and warlord of Yunnan during the Warlord Era of early Republican China. He was military governor of Yunnan from 1913–1927. Life Tang was born in Huize county in 188 ...
and Jiangxi, led by governor Li Liejun. The rebels formed the National Protection Army () and thus began the National Protection War. This was followed by other provinces declaring independence from the Empire. The emperor's Beiyang generals, whose soldiers had not received pay once from the imperial government, did not put up an aggressive campaign against the National Protection Army and the
Beiyang Army The Beiyang Army (), named after the Beiyang region, was a Western-style Imperial Chinese Army established by the Qing dynasty in the early 20th century. It was the centerpiece of a general reconstruction of the Qing military system in the wake ...
suffered numerous defeats despite being better trained and equipped than the National Protection Army. Seeing the Hongxian Emperor's weakness and unpopularity, foreign powers withdrew their support (but did not choose sides in the war). The
Empire of Japan The Empire of Japan, also known as the Japanese Empire or Imperial Japan, was the Japanese nation state that existed from the Meiji Restoration on January 3, 1868, until the Constitution of Japan took effect on May 3, 1947. From Japan–Kor ...
first threatened to invade, then committed to overthrowing the Hongxian Emperor and recognised both sides of the conflict to be "in a state of war" and allowed Japanese citizens to help the Republicans. Faced with universal opposition, the emperor repeatedly delayed the accession rites to appease his foes. Funding for the ceremony was cut on 1 March. Yuan deliberated abandoning the monarchy with Liang Shiyi on 17 March and abandoned it on 22 March. The "Hongxian" year was abolished on 23 March and the Republic of China was restored. Yuan reigned a total of 83 days. After Yuan's death on 6 June, Vice President
Li Yuanhong Li Yuanhong (; courtesy name ; October 19, 1864 – June 3, 1928) was a prominent Chinese military and political leader during the Qing Dynasty and the Republic of China. He was the Provisional Vice President of the Republic of China from 191 ...
assumed the presidency, and appointed Beiyang general Duan Qirui as his Premier and restored the National Assembly and the provisional Constitution. However, the central authority of the Beijing government was significantly weakened and the demise of Yuan's Empire plunged China into a period of warlordism.


Economy

The government revenue of the Empire of China was around 1 million dollars per month.


National symbols

Although the name of the country in Chinese was changed to the "Empire of China", or "Hongxian" for state matters, the country continued to be officially referred to as the "Republic of China" in English. The Emperor set up the Ritual Regulations Office (), which issued the new official anthem for the Republic of China, "China heroically stands in the Universe" in June 1915. Its lyrics were written by Yin Chang () and music by Wang Lu (). The lyrics were slightly modified in December 1915, with "Five Races Under One Union" () replaced with (Shanrang, the ancient system of Chinese emperor relinquishing seats to others in Yao and Shun's era) to be used during the Hongxian Emperor's reign. Yao was a legendary Chinese ruler. The era of ''Yao'' and '' Shun'' () is a four-character idiom which means times of peace and prosperity. The national flag was changed from the original five-stripe flag to one where the red stripe is a centered cross; however, a flag with the former red stripe as a
saltire A saltire, also called Saint Andrew's Cross or the crux decussata, is a Heraldry, heraldic symbol in the form of a diagonal cross. The word comes from the Middle French , Medieval Latin ("stirrup"). From its use as field sign, the saltire cam ...
was the version commonly used. The national emblem remained as the national emblem of the Republic of China (1913–1928), National emblem of Twelve Symbols of Sovereignty.


Peerage

The Hongxian Emperor handed out titles of
peerage A peerage is a legal system historically comprising various hereditary titles (and sometimes Life peer, non-hereditary titles) in a number of countries, and composed of assorted Imperial, royal and noble ranks, noble ranks. Peerages include: A ...
to his closest relatives and friends, as well as those whom he thought he could buy with titles.


Crown Prince ()

* Yuntai ()


Prince of the First Rank Wuyi ()

* Duke Yansheng Kong Lingyi () *
Li Yuanhong Li Yuanhong (; courtesy name ; October 19, 1864 – June 3, 1928) was a prominent Chinese military and political leader during the Qing Dynasty and the Republic of China. He was the Provisional Vice President of the Republic of China from 191 ...
()


Dukes of the First Rank ()

* Duan Zhigui () *
Feng Guozhang Feng Guozhang (; 7 January 1859 – 12 December 1919) was a Chinese general and politician in the late Qing dynasty and early republican China who was Vice President from 1916 to 1917 and then acting President of the Republic of China from 1917 ...
() * Jiang Guiti () * Liu Guanxiong () * Long Jiguang () * Ni Sichong () *
Zhang Xun Zhang Xun (; September 16, 1854 – September 11, 1923), courtesy name Shaoxuan (), art name Songshou Laoren (), nickname Bianshuai (, ), was a Chinese general and Qing loyalist who attempted to restore the abdicated emperor Puyi in the Manch ...
()


Marquesses of the First Rank ()

* Chen Yi () * Li Chun () * Lu Rongting () *
Tang Jiyao Tang Jiyao () (August 14, 1883 – May 23, 1927) was a Chinese general and warlord of Yunnan during the Warlord Era of early Republican China. He was military governor of Yunnan from 1913–1927. Life Tang was born in Huize county in 188 ...
() * Tang Xiangming () *
Wang Zhanyuan Wang Zhanyuan () (February 20, 1861 – September 14, 1934) was a Chinese general of the Warlord Era of China's Republican period, whose power base was in Hubei province. Biography In October 1911, during the Xinhai Revolution, he was a ...
() *
Yan Xishan Yan Xishan (; 8 October 1883 – 22 July 1960; also romanized as Yen Hsi-shan) was a Chinese warlord who served in the government of the Republic of China from June 1949 to March 1950 as its last premier in mainland China and first premi ...
() * Zhao Ti () *Zhu Rui ()


Counts of the First Rank ()

*
Cao Kun General Cao Kun (; courtesy name: Zhongshan () (December 12, 1862 – May 15, 1938) was a Chinese warlord and politician, who served as the President of the Republic of China from 1923 to 1924, as well as the military leader of the Zhili clique ...
() * Jin Yunpeng () * Lu Jianzhang () * Meng Enyuan () * Qi Yaolin () * Qu Yinguang () * Tian Wenlie () * Yang Shande () *
Yang Zengxin Yang Zengxin (; March 6, 1864 – July 7, 1928) was a Chinese warlord who was the ruler of Xinjiang after the Xinhai Revolution in 1911 and during the Warlord Era until his assassination in 1928. Life Yang Zengxin was born in Mengzi, Yun ...
() * Zhang Mingqi () * Zhang Xiluan () * Zhu Jiabao ()


Viscounts of the First Rank ()

*Li Houji () * Liu Xianshi () * Zhang Guangjian () * Zhu Qinglan ()


Barons of the First Rank ()

*
Cai Rukai Cai Rukai (; 1867 – 1923) was a Chinese politician and educator of the late Qing dynasty and early Republican period. Biography Cai was born in Nanchang, Jiangxi in 1867. During the reign of Guangxu Emperor in the Qing dynasty, he successfully ...
() * Chen Bingkun () *Duan Shuyun () *He Zonglian () *Jin Yong () *Long Jianzhang () * Long Jinguang () *Lu Yongxiang () *Lü Diaoyuan () *
Ma Anliang Ma Anliang (, French romanization: Ma-ngan-leang, Xiao'erjing: ; 1855 – November 24, 1918) was a Hui people, Hui born in Linxia City, Hezhou, Gansu, China. He became a general in the Qing dynasty army, and of the Republic of China (1912 ...
() *Pan Juying () *Qi Yang () *Ren Kecheng () * Shen Jinjian () *
Wang Yitang Wang Yitang (; October 17, 1877 – September 10, 1948) was a politician and military leader in the Qing Dynasty and Republic of China. He belonged to the Anhui clique and formed the Anfu Club (). Later he became an important politician in t ...
() * Xu Shiying () * Zhang Huaizhi ()


Baron of the Third Rank ()

*
Feng Yuxiang Feng Yuxiang (; ; 6 November 1882 – 1 September 1948), courtesy name Huanzhang (焕章), was a Chinese warlord and later general in the National Revolutionary Army. He served as Vice Premier of the Republic of China from 1928 to 1930. A ...
() * He Fenglin () * Xu Lanzhou ()


See also

*
Warlord Era The Warlord Era was the period in the history of the Republic of China between 1916 and 1928, when control of the country was divided between rival Warlord, military cliques of the Beiyang Army and other regional factions. It began after the de ...
*
History of the Republic of China The history of the Republic of China began in 1912 with the end of the Qing dynasty, when the 1911 Revolution, Xinhai Revolution and the formation of the Republic of China (1912–1949), Republic of China put an end to 2,000 years of imperial ...
*
Military of the Republic of China The Republic of China Armed Forces ( zh, t=中華民國國軍) are the national military forces of the Taiwan, Republic of China (ROC), which is now based primarily in the Taiwan Area but Republic of China (1912–1949), formerly governed Mai ...
* Self-proclaimed monarchy * National Protection War * Chinese Empire


References


External links

* {{DEFAULTSORT:Empire of China (1915-1916) Warlord Era 1915 establishments in China States and territories disestablished in 1916
China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. With population of China, a population exceeding 1.4 billion, it is the list of countries by population (United Nations), second-most populous country after ...
China (1915-1916) China (1915-1916) 1916 in China Former countries in Chinese history
China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. With population of China, a population exceeding 1.4 billion, it is the list of countries by population (United Nations), second-most populous country after ...
Conservatism in China Military dictatorships Democratic backsliding