Edward of Woodstock (15 June 1330 – 8 June 1376), known as the Black Prince, was the eldest son and
heir apparent
An heir apparent is a person who is first in the order of succession and cannot be displaced from inheriting by the birth of another person. A person who is first in the current order of succession but could be displaced by the birth of a more e ...
of King
Edward III of England
Edward III (13 November 1312 – 21 June 1377), also known as Edward of Windsor before his accession, was King of England from January 1327 until his death in 1377. He is noted for his military success and for restoring royal authority after t ...
. He died before his father and so his son,
Richard II,
succeeded to the throne instead. Edward nevertheless earned distinction as one of the most successful English commanders during the
Hundred Years' War
The Hundred Years' War (; 1337–1453) was a conflict between the kingdoms of Kingdom of England, England and Kingdom of France, France and a civil war in France during the Late Middle Ages. It emerged from feudal disputes over the Duchy ...
, being regarded by his English contemporaries as a model of
chivalry
Chivalry, or the chivalric language, is an informal and varying code of conduct that developed in Europe between 1170 and 1220. It is associated with the medieval Christianity, Christian institution of knighthood, with knights being members of ...
and one of the greatest
knights
A knight is a person granted an honorary title of a knighthood by a head of state (including the pope) or representative for service to the monarch, the church, or the country, especially in a military capacity.
The concept of a knighthood ...
of his age. Edward was made
Duke of Cornwall
Duke of Cornwall () is a title in the Peerage of England, traditionally held by the eldest son of the reigning Monarchy of the United Kingdom, British monarch, previously the English monarch. The Duchy of Cornwall was the first duchy created i ...
, the first English dukedom, in 1337. He was guardian of the kingdom in his father's absence in 1338, 1340, and 1342. He was created
Prince of Wales
Prince of Wales (, ; ) is a title traditionally given to the male heir apparent to the History of the English monarchy, English, and later, the British throne. The title originated with the Welsh rulers of Kingdom of Gwynedd, Gwynedd who, from ...
in 1343 and knighted by his father at
La Hougue in 1346.
In 1346, Prince Edward commanded the vanguard at the
Battle of Crécy
The Battle of Crécy took place on 26 August 1346 in northern France between a French army commanded by King PhilipVI and an English army led by King Edward III. The French attacked the English while they were traversing northern France ...
, his father intentionally leaving him to win the battle. He took part in Edward III's
1349 Calais expedition. In 1355, he was appointed the
king's lieutenant in Gascony and ordered to lead an army into
Aquitaine
Aquitaine (, ; ; ; ; Poitevin-Saintongeais: ''Aguiéne''), archaic Guyenne or Guienne (), is a historical region of southwestern France and a former Regions of France, administrative region. Since 1 January 2016 it has been part of the administ ...
on
a chevauchée, during which he pillaged
Avignonet and
Castelnaudary, sacked
Carcassonne
Carcassonne is a French defensive wall, fortified city in the Departments of France, department of Aude, Regions of France, region of Occitania (administrative region), Occitania. It is the prefectures in France, prefecture of the department.
...
, and plundered
Narbonne
Narbonne ( , , ; ; ; Late Latin:) is a commune in Southern France in the Occitanie region. It lies from Paris in the Aude department, of which it is a sub-prefecture. It is located about from the shores of the Mediterranean Sea and was ...
. In 1356, on
another chevauchée, he ravaged
Auvergne,
Limousin
Limousin (; ) is a former administrative region of southwest-central France. Named after the old province of Limousin, the administrative region was founded in 1960. It comprised three departments: Corrèze, Creuse, and Haute-Vienne. On 1 Jan ...
, and
Berry
A berry is a small, pulpy, and often edible fruit. Typically, berries are juicy, rounded, brightly colored, sweet, sour or tart, and do not have a stone or pit although many pips or seeds may be present. Common examples of berries in the cul ...
but failed to take
Bourges
Bourges ( ; ; ''Borges'' in Berrichon) is a commune in central France on the river Yèvre (Cher), Yèvre. It is the capital of the Departments of France, department of Cher (department), Cher, and also was the capital city of the former provin ...
. He offered terms of peace to King
John II of France
John II (; 26 April 1319 – 8 April 1364), called John the Good (French: ''Jean le Bon''), was King of France from 1350 until his death in 1364. When he came to power, France faced several disasters: the Black Death, which killed between a thir ...
, who had outflanked him near
Poitiers
Poitiers is a city on the river Clain in west-central France. It is a commune in France, commune, the capital of the Vienne (department), Vienne department and the historical center of Poitou, Poitou Province. In 2021, it had a population of 9 ...
, but Edward refused to surrender himself. This led to the
Battle of Poitiers
The Battle of Poitiers was fought on 19September 1356 between a Kingdom of France, French army commanded by King John II of France, King JohnII and an Kingdom of England, Anglo-Gascony, Gascon force under Edward the Black Prince, Edward, the ...
, where his army routed the French and took King John prisoner.
In 1360, he negotiated the
Treaty of Brétigny. He was created
Prince of Aquitaine and
Gascony
Gascony (; ) was a province of the southwestern Kingdom of France that succeeded the Duchy of Gascony (602–1453). From the 17th century until the French Revolution (1789–1799), it was part of the combined Province of Guyenne and Gascon ...
in 1362, but his
suzerainty
A suzerain (, from Old French "above" + "supreme, chief") is a person, state (polity)">state or polity who has supremacy and dominant influence over the foreign policy">polity.html" ;"title="state (polity)">state or polity">state (polity)">st ...
was not recognised by the
lord of Albret or other Gascon nobles. He was directed by his father to forbid the marauding raids of the English and Gascon
free companies in 1364. He entered into an agreement with Kings
Peter of Castile
Peter (; 30 August 133423 March 1369), called Peter the Cruel () or the Just (), was King of Castile and León from 1350 to 1369. Peter was the last ruler of the main branch of the House of Ivrea. He was excommunicated by Pope Urban V for h ...
and
Charles II of Navarre
Charles II (, , , 10 October 1332 – 1 January 1387), known as the Bad, was King of Navarre beginning in 1349, as well as Count of Évreux beginning in 1343, holding both titles until his death in 1387.
Besides the Kingdom of Navarre nestled in ...
, by which Peter
covenanted to mortgage
Castro Urdiales and the
province of Biscay to him as security for a loan; in 1366 a passage was secured through
Navarre
Navarre ( ; ; ), officially the Chartered Community of Navarre, is a landlocked foral autonomous community and province in northern Spain, bordering the Basque Autonomous Community, La Rioja, and Aragon in Spain and New Aquitaine in France. ...
. In 1367, he received a letter of defiance from
Henry of Trastámara, Peter's half-brother and rival. The same year, after an obstinate conflict, he defeated Henry at the
Battle of Nájera
The Battle of Nájera, also known as the Battle of Navarrete, was fought on 3 April 1367 to the northeast of Nájera, in the province of La Rioja, Castile. It was an episode of the first Castilian Civil War which confronted King Peter of Ca ...
. However, after a wait of several months during which he failed to obtain either the province of Biscay or liquidation of the debt from Don Pedro, he returned to Aquitaine. Edward persuaded the
estates of Aquitaine to allow him a
hearth tax
A hearth tax was a property tax in certain countries during the medieval and early modern period, levied on each hearth, thus by proxy on wealth. It was calculated based on the number of hearths, or fireplaces, within a municipal area and is con ...
of ten
sous
The Sous region (also spelt Sus, Suss, Souss or Sousse) (, ) is a historical, cultural and geographical region of Morocco, which constitutes part of the region administration of Souss-Massa and Guelmim-Oued Noun. The region is known for the en ...
for five years in 1368, thereby alienating the lord of Albret and other nobles.
Prince Edward returned to England in 1371 and resigned the principality of Aquitaine and Gascony in 1372. He led the Commons in their attack upon the Lancastrian administration in 1376. He died in 1376 of
dysentery
Dysentery ( , ), historically known as the bloody flux, is a type of gastroenteritis that results in bloody diarrhea. Other symptoms may include fever, abdominal pain, and a feeling of incomplete defecation. Complications may include dehyd ...
and was buried in
Canterbury Cathedral
Canterbury Cathedral is the cathedral of the archbishop of Canterbury, the spiritual leader of the Church of England and symbolic leader of the worldwide Anglican Communion. Located in Canterbury, Kent, it is one of the oldest Christianity, Ch ...
, where his
surcoat
A surcoat or surcote is an outer garment that was commonly worn in the Middle Ages by soldiers. It was worn over armor to show insignia and help identify what side the soldier was on. In the battlefield the surcoat was also helpful with keeping ...
, helmet, shield, and gauntlets are still preserved.
Early life (1330–1343)
Edward—the eldest son of
Edward III of England
Edward III (13 November 1312 – 21 June 1377), also known as Edward of Windsor before his accession, was King of England from January 1327 until his death in 1377. He is noted for his military success and for restoring royal authority after t ...
,
Lord of Ireland
The Lordship of Ireland (), sometimes referred to retrospectively as Anglo-Norman Ireland, was the part of Ireland ruled by the King of Kingdom of England, England (styled as "Lord of Ireland") and controlled by loyal Normans in Ireland, Anglo ...
and ruler of
Gascony
Gascony (; ) was a province of the southwestern Kingdom of France that succeeded the Duchy of Gascony (602–1453). From the 17th century until the French Revolution (1789–1799), it was part of the combined Province of Guyenne and Gascon ...
, and
Queen Philippa—was born at
Woodstock
The Woodstock Music and Art Fair, commonly referred to as Woodstock, was a music festival held from August 15 to 18, 1969, on Max Yasgur's dairy farm in Bethel, New York, southwest of the town of Woodstock, New York, Woodstock. Billed as "a ...
,
Oxfordshire
Oxfordshire ( ; abbreviated ''Oxon'') is a ceremonial county in South East England. The county is bordered by Northamptonshire and Warwickshire to the north, Buckinghamshire to the east, Berkshire to the south, and Wiltshire and Glouceste ...
, on 15 June 1330. On 10 September Edward III allowed five hundred
mark
Mark may refer to:
In the Bible
* Mark the Evangelist (5–68), traditionally ascribed author of the Gospel of Mark
* Gospel of Mark, one of the four canonical gospels and one of the three synoptic gospels
Currencies
* Mark (currency), a currenc ...
s per year from the profits of the
county of Chester
Cheshire ( ) is a ceremonial county in North West England. It is bordered by Merseyside to the north-west, Greater Manchester to the north-east, Derbyshire to the east, Staffordshire to the south-east, and Shropshire to the south; to the west ...
for his son's maintenance; on 25 February 1331, the whole of these profits were assigned to the queen for maintaining Edward and the
king's sister Eleanor. In July 1331 the king proposed to marry Edward to a daughter of
Philip VI of France
Philip VI (; 1293 – 22 August 1350), called the Fortunate (), the Catholic (''le Catholique'') and of Valois (''de Valois''), was the first king of France from the House of Valois, reigning from 1328 until his death in 1350. Philip's reign w ...
.
Edward III had been in conflict with the French over English lands in France and also the kingship of France; Edward III's mother and the Prince's grandmother, Queen
Isabella of France
Isabella of France ( – 22 August 1358), sometimes described as the She-Wolf of France (), was List of English royal consorts, Queen of England as the wife of Edward II of England, King Edward II, and ''de facto'' regent of England from 1327 ...
was a daughter of King
Philip IV of France
Philip IV (April–June 1268 – 29 November 1314), called Philip the Fair (), was King of France from 1285 to 1314. Jure uxoris, By virtue of his marriage with Joan I of Navarre, he was also King of Navarre and Count of Champagne as Philip&n ...
, thus placing her son in line for the throne of France. Relations between England and France quickly deteriorated when Philip threatened to confiscate his lands in France, beginning the
Hundred Years' War
The Hundred Years' War (; 1337–1453) was a conflict between the kingdoms of Kingdom of England, England and Kingdom of France, France and a civil war in France during the Late Middle Ages. It emerged from feudal disputes over the Duchy ...
.
On 18 March 1333, Edward was invested with the
earldom and county of Chester, and in the parliament of 9 February 1337 he was created
duke of Cornwall
Duke of Cornwall () is a title in the Peerage of England, traditionally held by the eldest son of the reigning Monarchy of the United Kingdom, British monarch, previously the English monarch. The Duchy of Cornwall was the first duchy created i ...
and received the
duchy
A duchy, also called a dukedom, is a country, territory, fiefdom, fief, or domain ruled by a duke or duchess, a ruler hierarchically second to the king or Queen regnant, queen in Western European tradition.
There once existed an important differe ...
by charter dated 17 March. This is the earliest instance of the creation of a
duke
Duke is a male title either of a monarch ruling over a duchy, or of a member of Royal family, royalty, or nobility. As rulers, dukes are ranked below emperors, kings, grand princes, grand dukes, and above sovereign princes. As royalty or nobi ...
in England. By the terms of the charter the duchy was to be held by Edward and the eldest sons of kings of England. His tutor was Dr.
Walter Burley of
Merton College, Oxford
Merton College (in full: The House or College of Scholars of Merton in the University of Oxford) is a Colleges of the University of Oxford, constituent college of the University of Oxford in England. Its foundation can be traced back to the 126 ...
. His revenues were placed at the disposal of his mother in March 1334 for the expenses she incurred in bringing up him and his two sisters, Isabella and Joan. Rumours of an impending French invasion led the king in August 1335 to order that he and his household should remove to
Nottingham Castle
Nottingham Castle is a Stuart Restoration-era ducal mansion in Nottingham, England, built on the site of a Normans, Norman castle built starting in 1068, and added to extensively through the medieval period, when it was an important royal fortr ...
as a place of safety.
When two
cardinals came to England at the end of 1337 to make peace between Edward III and Philip VI, Edward reportedly met the cardinals outside the
City of London
The City of London, also known as ''the City'', is a Ceremonial counties of England, ceremonial county and Districts of England, local government district with City status in the United Kingdom, city status in England. It is the Old town, his ...
and, in company with many nobles, conducted them to Edward III. On 11 July 1338 his father, who was on the point of leaving England for
Flanders
Flanders ( or ; ) is the Dutch language, Dutch-speaking northern portion of Belgium and one of the communities, regions and language areas of Belgium. However, there are several overlapping definitions, including ones related to culture, la ...
, appointed him guardian of the kingdom during his absence, and he was appointed to the same office on 27 May 1340 and 6 October 1342; he was, of course, too young to take any save a nominal part in the administration, which was carried on by the council. To attach
John III, Duke of Brabant
John III (; 1300 – 5 December 1355) was Duke of Brabant, Duke of Lothier, Lothier (1312–1355) and List of rulers of Limburg, Limburg (1312–1347 then 1349–1355), the last Brabant male to rule them.
Biography
John was the son of John II, ...
, to his cause, the king in 1339 proposed a marriage between Edward and John's daughter Margaret, and in the spring of 1345 wrote urgently to
Pope Clement VI
Pope Clement VI (; 1291 – 6 December 1352), born Pierre Roger, was head of the Catholic Church from 7 May 1342 to his death, in December 1352. He was the fourth Avignon pope. Clement reigned during the first visitation of the Black Death (1 ...
for a dispensation for the marriage.
On 12 May 1343, Edward III created Edward
Prince of Wales
Prince of Wales (, ; ) is a title traditionally given to the male heir apparent to the History of the English monarchy, English, and later, the British throne. The title originated with the Welsh rulers of Kingdom of Gwynedd, Gwynedd who, from ...
in a parliament held at Westminster, investing Edward with a circlet, gold ring, and silver rod. Edward accompanied his father to
Sluys on 3 July 1345, and the king tried to persuade the
burgomaster
Burgomaster (alternatively spelled burgermeister, ) is the English form of various terms in or derived from Germanic languages for the chief magistrate or executive of a city or town. The name in English was derived from the Dutch .
In so ...
s of
Ghent
Ghent ( ; ; historically known as ''Gaunt'' in English) is a City status in Belgium, city and a Municipalities of Belgium, municipality in the Flemish Region of Belgium. It is the capital and largest city of the Provinces of Belgium, province ...
,
Bruges
Bruges ( , ; ; ) is the capital and largest city of the province of West Flanders, in the Flemish Region of Belgium. It is in the northwest of the country, and is the sixth most populous city in the country.
The area of the whole city amoun ...
and
Ypres
Ypres ( ; ; ; ; ) is a Belgian city and municipality in the province of West Flanders. Though
the Dutch name is the official one, the city's French name is most commonly used in English. The municipality comprises the city of Ypres/Ieper ...
to accept his son as their lord, but the murder of
Jacob van Artevelde put an end to this project. Both in September 1345 and in April 1346, Edward was called on to furnish troops from his principality and earldom for the impending campaign in France, and as he incurred heavy debts in the king's service, his father authorised him to make his will and provided that, in case he fell in the war, his executors should have all his revenue for a year.
Early campaigns (1346–53)
Battle of Crécy

Edward, Prince of Wales, sailed with King Edward III on 11 July 1346, and as soon as he landed at
La Hougue he received
knighthood from his father in the local church of
Quettehou. Then he "made a right good beginning", for he rode through the
Cotentin, burning and ravaging as he went. Edward distinguished himself at the
taking of Caen and in the
Battle of Blanchetaque with the force under Sir
Godemar I du Fay, which endeavoured to prevent the English army from crossing the
Somme __NOTOC__
Somme or The Somme may refer to: Places
*Somme (department), a department of France
* Somme, Queensland, Australia
* Canal de la Somme, a canal in France
*Somme (river), a river in France
Arts, entertainment, and media
* ''Somme'' (book), ...
.
[ cites Baron Seymour de Constant, ''Bataille de Crécy'', ed, 1846; Louandre, ''Histoire d'Abbeville; Archæologia'', xxviii. 171.]
Early on 26 August 1346, before the start of the
Battle of Crécy
The Battle of Crécy took place on 26 August 1346 in northern France between a French army commanded by King PhilipVI and an English army led by King Edward III. The French attacked the English while they were traversing northern France ...
, Edward
received the sacrament with his father at
Crécy, and took the command of the right, or van, of the army with the earls of
Warwick
Warwick ( ) is a market town, civil parish and the county town of Warwickshire in the Warwick District in England, adjacent to the River Avon, Warwickshire, River Avon. It is south of Coventry, and south-east of Birmingham. It is adjoined wit ...
and
Oxford
Oxford () is a City status in the United Kingdom, cathedral city and non-metropolitan district in Oxfordshire, England, of which it is the county town.
The city is home to the University of Oxford, the List of oldest universities in continuou ...
, Sir
Geoffroy d'Harcourt, Sir
John Chandos
Sir John Chandos, Viscount of Saint-Sauveur-le-Vicomte, Saint-Sauveur in the Cotentin Peninsula, Cotentin, Constable of Aquitaine, Seneschal of Count of Poitiers, Poitou, (c. 1320 – 31 December 1369) was a medieval English knight who haile ...
, and other leaders, and at the head of 800 men-at-arms, 2,000 archers, and 1,000 Welsh foot soldiers, though the numbers are by no means trustworthy. When the Genoese bowmen were discomfited and the front line of the French was in some disorder, Edward apparently left his position to attack their second line. At this moment, however, the
Count of Alençon
Count (feminine: countess) is a historical title of nobility in certain European countries, varying in relative status, generally of middling rank in the hierarchy of nobility.L. G. Pine, Pine, L. G. ''Titles: How the King Became His Majesty'' ...
charged his division with such fury that Edward was in great danger, and the leaders who commanded with him sent a messenger to tell Edward III that he was in great straits and to beg for assistance. When Edward III learned that his son was not wounded, he responded that he would send no help, for he wished to give Edward the opportunity to "win his
spur
A spur is a metal tool designed to be worn in pairs on the heels of riding boots for the purpose of directing a horse or other animal to move forward or laterally while riding. It is usually used to refine the riding aids (commands) and to ba ...
s" (he was in fact already a knight), and to allow him and those who had charge of him the honour of the victory. Edward was thrown to the ground and was rescued by Sir
Richard Fitz-Simon, his
standard-bearer, who threw down the banner, stood over his body, and beat back his assailants while he regained his feet. Harcourt sent to
Earl of Arundel
Earl of Arundel is a title of nobility in England, and one of the oldest extant in the English peerage. It is currently held by the Duke of Norfolk, and it is used (along with the earldom of Surrey) by his heir apparent as a courtesy title ...
for help, and he forced back the French, who had probably by this time advanced to the rising ground of the English position.
A
flank attack on the side of
Wadicourt was next made by the Counts of
Alençon
Alençon (, , ; ) is a commune in Normandy, France, and the capital of the Orne department. It is situated between Paris and Rennes (about west of Paris) and a little over north of Le Mans. Alençon belongs to the intercommunality of Alen� ...
and
Ponthieu
Ponthieu (; ; ) was one of six feudal counties that eventually merged to become part of the Province of Picardy, in northern France.Dunbabin.France in the Making. Ch.4. The Principalities 888-987 Its chief town is Abbeville.
History
Ponthieu p ...
, but the English were strongly entrenched there, and the French were unable to penetrate the defences and lost the
Duke of Lorraine
The kings and dukes of Lorraine have held different posts under different governments over different regions, since its creation as the kingdom of Lotharingia by the Treaty of Prüm, in 855. The first rulers of the newly established region were ...
and the Counts of
Alençon
Alençon (, , ; ) is a commune in Normandy, France, and the capital of the Orne department. It is situated between Paris and Rennes (about west of Paris) and a little over north of Le Mans. Alençon belongs to the intercommunality of Alen� ...
and
Blois
Blois ( ; ) is a commune and the capital city of Loir-et-Cher Departments of France, department, in Centre-Val de Loire, France, on the banks of the lower Loire river between Orléans and Tours.
With 45,898 inhabitants by 2019, Blois is the mos ...
.
The two front lines of their army were utterly broken before King Philip's division engaged. Then Edward III appears to have advanced at the head of the reserve, and the rout soon became complete. When Edward III met his son after the battle was over, he embraced him and declared that he had acquitted himself loyally, and Edward bowed low and did reverence to his father. The next day he joined the king in paying funeral honours to King
John of Bohemia
John of Bohemia, also called the Blind or of Luxembourg (; ; ; 10 August 1296 – 26 August 1346), was the Count of Luxembourg from 1313 and King of Bohemia from 1310 and titular King of Poland. He is well known for having died while fighting ...
.

Edward was present at the
siege of Calais (1346–1347), and after the surrender of the town
harried and burned the country for around, and he brought much booty back with him. He returned to England with his father on 12 October 1347, took part in the
jousts and other festivities of the court, and was invested by the king with the new
Order of the Garter
The Most Noble Order of the Garter is an order of chivalry founded by Edward III of England in 1348. The most senior order of knighthood in the Orders, decorations, and medals of the United Kingdom, British honours system, it is outranked in ...
in 1348.
Siege of Calais and Battle of Winchelsea
Prince Edward shared in the king's
expedition to Calais in the last days of 1349, came to the rescue of his father, and when the combat was over and the king and his prisoners sat down to feast, he and the other English knights served the king and his guests at the first course and then sat down for the second course at another table. When the king embarked at
Winchelsea
Winchelsea () is a town in the county of East Sussex, England, located between the High Weald and the Romney Marsh, approximately south west of Rye and north east of Hastings. The current town, which was founded in 1288, replaced an earli ...
on 28 August 1350 to intercept the fleet of
La Cerda, the Prince sailed with him, though in another ship, and in company with his brother, the young
John of Gaunt
John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster (6 March 1340 – 3 February 1399), was an English royal prince, military leader and statesman. He was the fourth son (third surviving) of King Edward III of England, and the father of King Henry IV. Because ...
,
Earl of Richmond
The now-extinct title of Earl of Richmond was created many times in the Peerage of Peerage of England, England. The earldom of Richmond, North Yorkshire, Richmond was initially held by various Breton people, Breton nobles; sometimes the holde ...
. During the
Battle of Winchelsea his ship was grappled by a large Spanish ship and was so full of leaks that it was likely to sink, and though he and his knights attacked the enemy manfully, they were unable to take her.
Henry of Grosmont, Earl of Lancaster, came to his rescue and attacked the Spaniard on the other side; she was soon taken, her crew were thrown into the sea, and as the Prince and his men got on board her their own ship foundered.
Cheshire expedition
In 1353 some disturbances seem to have broken out in
Cheshire
Cheshire ( ) is a Ceremonial counties of England, ceremonial county in North West England. It is bordered by Merseyside to the north-west, Greater Manchester to the north-east, Derbyshire to the east, Staffordshire to the south-east, and Shrop ...
, for the Prince as
Earl of Chester
The Earldom of Chester () was one of the most powerful earldoms in medieval England, extending principally over the counties of Cheshire and Flintshire. Since 1301 the title has generally been granted to heirs apparent to the English throne, ...
marched with Henry of Grosmont, now
Duke of Lancaster
The dukedom of Lancaster is a former Peerage of England, English peerage, created three times in the Middle Ages, which finally merged in the Crown when Henry V of England, Henry V succeeded to the throne in 1413. Despite the extinction of the ...
, to the neighbourhood of
Chester
Chester is a cathedral city in Cheshire, England, on the River Dee, Wales, River Dee, close to the England–Wales border. With a built-up area population of 92,760 in 2021, it is the most populous settlement in the borough of Cheshire West an ...
to protect the justices, who were holding an assize there. The men of the earldom offered to pay him a heavy fine to bring the assize to an end, but when they thought they had arranged matters the justices opened an inquisition of
trailbaston, took a large sum of money from them, and seized many houses and much land into the prince's, their earl's, hands. On his return from Chester the prince is said to have passed by the
Abbey of Dieulacres in Staffordshire, to have seen a fine church which his great-grandfather,
Edward I
Edward I (17/18 June 1239 – 7 July 1307), also known as Edward Longshanks and the Hammer of the Scots (Latin: Malleus Scotorum), was King of England from 1272 to 1307. Concurrently, he was Lord of Ireland, and from 125 ...
, had built there, and to have granted five hundred marks, a tenth of the sum he had taken from his earldom, towards its completion; the abbey was almost certainly not Dieulacres but
Vale Royal
Vale Royal was, from 1974 to 2009, a Non-metropolitan district, local government district with Borough status in the United Kingdom, borough status in Cheshire, England. It contained the towns of Northwich, Winsford and Frodsham.
History
The ...
.
Further campaigns (1355–64)
Aquitaine
When Edward III determined to renew the war with France in 1355, he ordered Edward to lead an army into
Aquitaine
Aquitaine (, ; ; ; ; Poitevin-Saintongeais: ''Aguiéne''), archaic Guyenne or Guienne (), is a historical region of southwestern France and a former Regions of France, administrative region. Since 1 January 2016 it has been part of the administ ...
while he, as his plan was, acted with the king of Navarre in Normandy, and the Duke of Lancaster upheld the cause of
John of Montfort in Brittany. Edward's expedition was made in accordance with the request of some of the Gascon lords who were anxious for plunder. On 10 July the king appointed him his lieutenant in Gascony and gave him powers to act in his stead and to receive homages. Edward left London for Plymouth on 30 June, was detained there by contrary winds, and set sail on 8 September with about 300 ships, in company with four earls (Thomas Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick,
William Ufford, Earl of Suffolk,
William Montagu, Earl of Salisbury, and John Vere, Earl of Oxford) and in command of 1,000 men-at-arms, 2,000 archers, and a large body of Welsh foot soldiers. At
Bordeaux
Bordeaux ( ; ; Gascon language, Gascon ; ) is a city on the river Garonne in the Gironde Departments of France, department, southwestern France. A port city, it is the capital of the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region, as well as the Prefectures in F ...
the Gascon lords received him with much rejoicing. It was decided to make a short campaign before the winter, and on 10 October he set out with 1,500 lances, 2,000 archers, and 3,000 light foot. Whatever scheme of operations the king may have formed during the summer, this expedition of Edward was purely a piece of marauding. After grievously harrying the counties of Juliac,
Armagnac
Armagnac (, ) is a distinctive kind of brandy produced in the Armagnac (region), Armagnac region in Gascony, southwest France. It is distilled from wine usually made from a blend of grapes including Baco 22A, Colombard, Folle blanche and Ugni ...
,
Astarac, and part of
Comminges
The Comminges (; Occitan language, Occitan/Gascon language, Gascon: ''Comenge'') is an ancient region of southern France in the foothills of the Pyrenees, corresponding approximately to the arrondissement of Saint-Gaudens in the departments of Fran ...
, he crossed the
Garonne
The Garonne ( , ; Catalan language, Catalan, Basque language, Basque and , ;
or ) is a river that flows in southwest France and northern Spain. It flows from the central Spanish Pyrenees to the Gironde estuary at the French port of Bordeaux � ...
at Sainte-Marie a little above
Toulouse
Toulouse (, ; ; ) is a city in southern France, the Prefectures in France, prefecture of the Haute-Garonne department and of the Occitania (administrative region), Occitania region. The city is on the banks of the Garonne, River Garonne, from ...
, which was occupied by
John I, Count of Armagnac
John I of Armagnac (French: Jean d’Armagnac; 1311–1373), son of Bernard VI and Cecilia Rodez, was Count of Armagnac from 1319 to 1373. In addition to Armagnac he controlled territory in Quercy, Rouergue and Gévaudan. He was the count who ...
, and a considerable force. The count refused to allow the garrison to make a sally, and Edward passed on into the
Lauragais. His troops stormed and burnt
Montgiscard, where many men, women, and children were ill-treated and slain, and took and pillaged
Avignonet and
Castelnaudary. The country was "very rich and fertile" according to Edward, and the people "good, simple, and ignorant of war", so the prince took great spoil, especially of carpets, draperies, and jewels, for "the robbers" spared nothing, and the Gascons who marched with him were especially greedy. The only castle to resist the English forces was
Montgey. Its
châtelain
Châtelain was originally the French title for the keeper of a castle.Abraham Rees Ebers, "CASTELLAIN", in: The Cyclopædia, or Universal Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and Literature' (London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme & Brown, 1819), vol. 6.
H ...
e defended its walls by pouring beehives onto the attackers, who fled in panic.
Carcassonne
Carcassonne is a French defensive wall, fortified city in the Departments of France, department of Aude, Regions of France, region of Occitania (administrative region), Occitania. It is the prefectures in France, prefecture of the department.
...
was taken and sacked, but Edward did not take the citadel which was strongly situated and fortified.
Ourmes (or Homps, near
Narbonne
Narbonne ( , , ; ; ; Late Latin:) is a commune in Southern France in the Occitanie region. It lies from Paris in the Aude department, of which it is a sub-prefecture. It is located about from the shores of the Mediterranean Sea and was ...
) and
Trèbes bought off his army. He plundered
Narbonne
Narbonne ( , , ; ; ; Late Latin:) is a commune in Southern France in the Occitanie region. It lies from Paris in the Aude department, of which it is a sub-prefecture. It is located about from the shores of the Mediterranean Sea and was ...
and thought of attacking the citadel, for he heard that there was much booty there, but he gave up the idea on finding that it was well defended. While there a messenger came to him from the papal court, urging him to allow negotiations for peace. He replied that he could do nothing without knowing his father's will. From Narbonne he turned to march back to Bordeaux. The Count of Armagnac tried to intercept him, but a small body of French having been defeated in a skirmish near Toulouse the rest of the army retreated into the city, and the prince returned in peace to Bordeaux, bringing back with him enormous spoils. The expedition lasted eight weeks, during which the prince only rested eleven days in all the places he visited, and without performing any feat of arms did the French king much mischief. During the next month, before 21 January 1356, the leaders under his command reduced five towns and seventeen castles.
Battle of Poitiers

On 6 July 1356 Edward set out on another expedition, undertaken with the intention of passing through France to Normandy and there giving aid to his father's Norman allies, the party headed by the king of Navarre and Geoffrey d'Harcourt. In Normandy he expected to be met by his father. He crossed the
Dordogne
Dordogne ( , or ; ; ) is a large rural departments of France, department in south west France, with its Prefectures in France, prefecture in Périgueux. Located in the Nouvelle-Aquitaine region roughly half-way between the Loire Valley and ...
at
Bergerac on 4 August and rode through
Auvergne, Limousin, and Berry, plundering and burning as he went until he came to
Bourges
Bourges ( ; ; ''Borges'' in Berrichon) is a commune in central France on the river Yèvre (Cher), Yèvre. It is the capital of the Departments of France, department of Cher (department), Cher, and also was the capital city of the former provin ...
, where he burnt the suburbs but failed to take the city. He then turned westward and made an unsuccessful attack on
Issoudun
Issoudun () is a commune in the Indre department, administrative region of Centre-Val de Loire, France. It is also referred to as ''Issoundun'', which is the ancient name.
Geography Location
Issoudun is a sub-prefecture, located in the eas ...
on 25–27 August. Meanwhile, King John II was gathering a large force at
Chartres
Chartres () is the Prefectures in France, prefecture of the Eure-et-Loir Departments of France, department in the Centre-Val de Loire Regions of France, region in France. It is located about southwest of Paris. At the 2019 census, there were 1 ...
, from which he was able to defend the passages of the
Loire
The Loire ( , , ; ; ; ; ) is the longest river in France and the 171st longest in the world. With a length of , it drains , more than a fifth of France's land, while its average discharge is only half that of the Rhône.
It rises in the so ...
and was sending troops to the fortresses that seemed in danger of attack. From Issoudun Edward returned to his former line of march and took
Vierzon
Vierzon () is a Communes of France, commune in the Cher (department), Cher departments of France, department, Centre-Val de Loire, France.
Geography
A medium-sized town by the banks of the river Cher (river), Cher with some light industry and a ...
. There he learnt that it would be impossible for him to cross the Loire or to form a junction with Lancaster, who was then in Brittany. Accordingly he determined to return to Bordeaux by way of Poitiers, and after putting to death most of the garrison of the castle of Vierzon he set out on 29 August towards
Romorantin.
Some French knights who skirmished with the English advanced guard retreated into Romorantin, and when Prince Edward heard of this he said: "Let us go there; I should like to see them a little nearer". He inspected the fortress in person and sent his friend Chandos to summon the garrison to surrender. The place was defended by Boucicault and other leaders, and on their refusing his summons he assaulted it on 31 August. The siege lasted three days, and the prince, who was enraged at the death of one of his friends, declared that he would not leave the place untaken. Finally he set fire to the roofs of the fortress by using
Greek fire
Greek fire was an incendiary weapon system used by the Byzantine Empire from the seventh to the fourteenth centuries. The recipe for Greek fire was a closely-guarded state secret; historians have variously speculated that it was based on saltp ...
, reduced it on 3 September.
On 5 September Edward proceeded to march through Berry. On 9 September King John II, who had gathered a large force, crossed the Loire at Blois and went in pursuit of them. When the king was at
Loches
Loches (; ) is a Communes of France, commune in the Departments of France, department of Indre-et-Loire, Centre-Val de Loire, France.
It is situated southeast of Tours by road, on the left bank of the river Indre (river), Indre.
History
Loch ...
on 12 September he had as many as 20,000 men-at-arms, and with these and his other forces he advanced to
Chauvigny. On 16 and 17 September his army crossed the
Vienne. Meanwhile, Edward was marching almost parallel to the French and at only a few miles distance from them. From 14 to 16 September he was at
Châtellerault, and 17 September as he was marching towards Poitiers, some French men-at-arms skirmished with his advance guard, pursued them up to the main body of his army, and were all slain or taken prisoners. The French king had outstripped him, and his retreat was cut off by an army at least 50,000 strong, while Edward he about 7,500 men. Lancaster had endeavoured to come to his relief but had been stopped by the French at
Pont-de-Cé.
When Prince Edward knew that the French army lay between him and Poitiers, he took up his position on some rising ground to the south-east of the city in the
commune of Beauvoir and remained there that night. On 18 September Cardinal
Hélie Talleyrand endeavoured to make peace. Edward was willing to come to terms and offered to give up all the towns and castles he had conquered, to set free all his prisoners, and not to serve against the king of France for seven years, besides, it is said, offering a payment of 100,000 francs. King John, however, was persuaded to demand that Edward and 100 of his knights should surrender themselves as prisoners, and to this Edward would not consent. The cardinal's negotiations lasted the whole day and were protracted in the interest of the French, for John was anxious to give time for further reinforcements to join his army. Considering the position of Edward, it seems probable that the French might have destroyed his army by hemming it in with a portion of their host, and so either starving it or forcing it to leave its strong station and fight in the open with the certainty of defeat. John made a mistake in allowing Edward respite during the negotiations, during which he employed his army in strengthening its position. The English front was well covered by vines and hedges; on its left and rear was the ravine of the Miausson river and a good deal of broken ground, and its right was flanked by the wood and abbey of Nouaillé. All through the day the army was busily engaged in digging trenches and making fences, so that it stood, as at Crécy, in a kind of entrenched camp.
Prince Edward drew up his men in three divisions, the first being commanded by the earls of Warwick and Suffolk, the second by himself, and the rear by Salisbury and Oxford. The French were drawn up in four divisions, one behind the other, and so lost much of the advantage of their superior numbers. In front of his first line and on either side of the narrow lane that led to his position the prince stationed his archers, who were well protected by hedges, and posted a kind of ambush of 300 men-at-arms and 300 mounted archers, who were to fall on the flank of the second battle of the enemy, commanded by the
Dauphin,
Charles, Duke of Normandy.
At daybreak on 19 September Prince Edward addressed his army, and the fight began. An attempt was made by 300 picked men-at-arms to ride through the narrow lane and force the English position, but they were shot down by the archers. A body of Germans and the first division of the army which followed were thrown into disorder; then the English force in ambush charged the second division on the flank, and as it began to waver the English men-at-arms mounted their horses, which they had kept near them, and charged down the hill. Edward kept Chandos by his side, and his friend did him good service in the fray. As they prepared to charge he cried: "John, get forward; you shall not see me turn my back this day, but I will be ever with the foremost", and then he shouted to his banner-bearer, "Banner, advance, in the name of God and St. George!". All the French except the advance guard fought on foot, and the division of the Duke of Normandy, already wavering, could not stand against the English charge and fled in disorder. The next division, under
Philip, Duke of Orléans, also fled, though not so shamefully, but the rear under King John fought with much gallantry. The prince, "who had the courage of a lion, took great delight that day in the fight". The combat lasted until a little after 3 pm, and the French, who were utterly defeated, left 11,000 dead on the field, of whom 2,426 were men of gentle birth. Nearly 100 counts, barons, and
banneret
A knight banneret, sometimes known simply as banneret, was a Middle Ages, medieval knight who led a company of troops during time of war under his own banner (which was square-shaped, in contrast to the tapering Heraldic flag#Standard, standar ...
s and 2,000 men-at-arms, besides many others, were made prisoners, and the king and his youngest son Philip were among those who were taken. The English losses were not large.
When King John was brought to him, Edward received him with respect, helped him to take off his armour, and entertained him and the greater part of the princes and barons who had been made prisoners at supper. He served at the king's table and would not sit down with him, declaring that "he was not worthy to sit at table with so great a king or so valiant a man", and speaking many comfortable words to him, for which the French praised him highly. The next day Edward continued his retreat on Bordeaux; he marched warily, but no one ventured to attack him.
At Bordeaux, which Prince Edward reached on 2 October, he was received with much rejoicing, and he and his men tarried there through the winter and wasted in festivities the immense spoil they had gathered. On 23 March 1357 Edward concluded a two years' truce, for he wished to return home. The Gascon lords were unwilling that King John should be carried off to England, and the prince gave them 100,000 crowns to silence their murmurs. He left the country under the government of four Gascon lords and arrived in England on 4 May, landing at Plymouth. When he entered London in triumph on 24 May with King John as his prisoner.
England, tournaments and debts
After his return to England, Prince Edward took part in the many festivals and tournaments of his father's court, and in May 1359 he and the king and other challengers held the lists at a joust proclaimed at London by the mayor and sheriffs, and, to the great delight of the citizens, the king appeared as the mayor and the prince as the senior sheriff. Festivities of this sort and the lavish gifts he bestowed on his friends brought him into debt, and on 27 August, when a new expedition into France was being prepared, the king granted that if he fell his executors should have his whole estate for four years for the payment of his debts.
Reims campaign
In October 1359 Prince Edward sailed with his father to Calais and led a division of the army during the
Reims campaign. At its close he took the principal part on the English side in negotiating the
Treaty of Brétigny, and the preliminary truce arranged at Chartres on 7 May 1360 was drawn up by proctors acting in his name and the name of Charles, Duke of Normandy, the regent of France. He probably did not return to England until after his father, who landed at
Rye
Rye (''Secale cereale'') is a grass grown extensively as a grain, a cover crop and a forage crop. It is grown principally in an area from Eastern and Northern Europe into Russia. It is much more tolerant of cold weather and poor soil than o ...
on 18 May. On 9 July he and Henry, Duke of Lancaster, landed at Calais in attendance on the French king. As, however, the stipulated instalment of the king's ransom was not ready, he returned to England, leaving King John in the charge of Sir
Walter Manny and three other knights. He accompanied his father to Calais on 9 October to assist at the liberation of King John and the ratification of the treaty. He rode with John to Boulogne, where he made his offering in the
Church of the Virgin. He returned with King Edward to England at the beginning of November.
Marriage to Joan
On 10 October 1361 Edward married his cousin
Joan, Countess of Kent, daughter of
Edmund of Woodstock, Earl of Kent (younger son of
Edward I
Edward I (17/18 June 1239 – 7 July 1307), also known as Edward Longshanks and the Hammer of the Scots (Latin: Malleus Scotorum), was King of England from 1272 to 1307. Concurrently, he was Lord of Ireland, and from 125 ...
, and
Margaret
Margaret is a feminine given name, which means "pearl". It is of Latin origin, via Ancient Greek and ultimately from Iranian languages, Old Iranian. It has been an English language, English name since the 11th century, and remained popular thro ...
, daughter of
Philip III of France
Philip III (1 May 1245 – 5 October 1285), called the Bold (), was King of France from 1270 until his death in 1285. His father, Louis IX, died in Tunis during the Eighth Crusade. Philip, who was accompanying him, returned to France and wa ...
) and widow of
Thomas Holland, 1st Earl of Kent
Thomas Holland, 2nd Baron Holand, and ''jure uxoris'' 1st Earl of Kent, Order of the Garter, KG (26 December 1360) was an Kingdom of England, English nobleman and military commander during the Hundred Years' War. By the time of the Crécy campai ...
and the mother of three children. Because Edward and Joan were related in the third degree (and since Edward was the godfather of Joan's elder son
Thomas
Thomas may refer to:
People
* List of people with given name Thomas
* Thomas (name)
* Thomas (surname)
* Saint Thomas (disambiguation)
* Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) Italian Dominican friar, philosopher, and Doctor of the Church
* Thomas the A ...
) a dispensation was obtained for their marriage from
Pope Innocent VI. The marriage was performed at
Windsor in the presence of King Edward III by
Simon Islip Archbishop of Canterbury
The archbishop of Canterbury is the senior bishop and a principal leader of the Church of England, the Primus inter pares, ceremonial head of the worldwide Anglican Communion and the bishop of the diocese of Canterbury. The first archbishop ...
. According to
Jean Froissart
Jean Froissart ( Old and Middle French: ''Jehan''; sometimes known as John Froissart in English; – ) was a French-speaking medieval author and court historian from the Low Countries who wrote several works, including ''Chronicles'' and ''Meli ...
the contract of marriage (the engagement) was entered without the knowledge of the king. Edward and Joan resided at
Berkhamsted Castle in
Hertfordshire
Hertfordshire ( or ; often abbreviated Herts) is a ceremonial county in the East of England and one of the home counties. It borders Bedfordshire to the north-west, Cambridgeshire to the north-east, Essex to the east, Greater London to the ...
and held the manor of
Princes Risborough
Princes Risborough () is a market town and civil parish in Buckinghamshire, England; it is located about south of Aylesbury and northwest of High Wycombe. It lies at the foot of the Chiltern Hills, at the north end of a gap or pass through ...
from 1343; though local history describes the estate as "his palace", many sources suggest it was used more as a hunting lodge.
Prince of Aquitaine and Gascony

On 19 July 1362 Edward III granted Prince Edward all his dominions in Aquitaine and Gascony, to be held as a principality by liege homage on payment of an ounce of gold each year, together with the title of Prince of Aquitaine and Gascony. During the rest of the year he was occupied in preparing for his departure to his new principality, and after Christmas he received the king and his court at Berkhamsted, took leave of his father and mother, and in the following February sailed with Joan and all his household for Gascony, landing at
La Rochelle
La Rochelle (, , ; Poitevin-Saintongeais: ''La Rochéle'') is a city on the west coast of France and a seaport on the Bay of Biscay, a part of the Atlantic Ocean. It is the capital of the Charente-Maritime Departments of France, department. Wi ...
.
At La Rochelle the prince was met by John Chandos, the king's lieutenant, and proceeded with him to Poitiers, where he received the homage of the lords of Poitou and
Saintonge; he then rode to various cities and at last came to Bordeaux, where from 9 to 30 July he received the homage of the lords of Gascony. He received all graciously and kept a splendid court, residing sometimes at Bordeaux and sometimes at
Angoulême
Angoulême (; Poitevin-Saintongeais: ''Engoulaeme''; ) is a small city in the southwestern French Departments of France, department of Charente, of which it is the Prefectures of France, prefecture.
Located on a plateau overlooking a meander of ...
.
The prince appointed Chandos constable of
Guyenne
Guyenne or Guienne ( , ; ) was an old French province which corresponded roughly to the Roman province of '' Aquitania Secunda'' and the Catholic archdiocese of Bordeaux.
Name
The name "Guyenne" comes from ''Aguyenne'', a popular transform ...
and provided the knights of his household with profitable offices. They kept much state, and their extravagance displeased the people. Many of the Gascon lords were dissatisfied at being handed over to the dominion of the English, and the favour the prince showed to his own countrymen, and the ostentatious magnificence they exhibited, increased this feeling of dissatisfaction.
Arnaud Amanieu, Lord of Albret
Arnaud Amanieu (also ''Arnold'' and ''Amaneus'', 4 August 1338–1401) was the Lord of Albret from 1358.
Amanieu held lands in Gascony which by the Treaty of Brétigny (1360) were obtained by Edward III of England. Edward III appointed his son E ...
, and many more were always ready to give what help they could to the French cause, and
Gaston, Count of Foix, though he visited the prince on his first arrival, was thoroughly French at heart and gave some trouble in 1365 by refusing to do homage for Bearn. Charles V, who succeeded to the throne of France in April 1364, was careful to encourage the malcontents, and the prince's position was by no means easy.
In April 1363 Edward mediated between the Counts of Foix and Armagnac, who had for a long time been at war with each other. He also attempted in February 1364 to mediate between
Charles of Blois and John of Montfort, the rival competitors for the
Duchy of Brittany
The Duchy of Brittany (, ; ) was a medieval feudal state that existed between approximately 939 and 1547. Its territory covered the northwestern peninsula of France, bordered by the Bay of Biscay to the west, and the English Channel to the north. ...
. Both appeared before him at Poitiers, but his mediation was unsuccessful.
In May 1363 the prince entertained
Peter, King of Cyprus, at Angoulême and held a tournament there. At the same time he and his lords excused themselves from assuming the cross—that is, they declined to join Peter's proposed
crusade
The Crusades were a series of religious wars initiated, supported, and at times directed by the Papacy during the Middle Ages. The most prominent of these were the campaigns to the Holy Land aimed at reclaiming Jerusalem and its surrounding t ...
. During the summer the lord of Albret was at Paris, and his forces and several other Gascon lords held the French cause in Normandy against the party of Navarre. Meanwhile, war was renewed in Brittany; the prince allowed Chandos to raise and lead a force to succour the party of Montfort, and Chandos won the
Battle of Auray
The Battle of Auray took place on 29 September 1364 at the Breton-French town of Auray. This battle was the decisive confrontation of the Breton War of Succession, a part of the Hundred Years' War.
In the battle, which began as a siege, a Bre ...
(29 September 1364) against the French.
As the leaders of the free companies which desolated France were for the most part Englishmen or Gascons, they did not ravage Aquitaine, and the prince was suspected, probably not without cause, of encouraging or at least of taking no pains to discourage their proceedings. Accordingly on 14 November 1364 Edward III called upon him to restrain their ravages.
Spanish campaign (1365–67)
In 1365 the free companies, under Sir
Hugh Calveley and other leaders, took service with
Bertrand du Guesclin
Bertrand du Guesclin (; 1320 – 13 July 1380), nicknamed "The Eagle of Brittany" or "The Black Dog of Brocéliande", was a Breton knight and an important military commander on the French side during the Hundred Years' War. From 1370 to his ...
, who employed them in 1366 in compelling King
Peter of Castile
Peter (; 30 August 133423 March 1369), called Peter the Cruel () or the Just (), was King of Castile and León from 1350 to 1369. Peter was the last ruler of the main branch of the House of Ivrea. He was excommunicated by Pope Urban V for h ...
to flee from his kingdom, and in setting up his bastard brother, Henry of Trastámara, as king in his stead. Peter, who was in alliance with Edward III, sent messengers to Prince Edward asking his help, and on receiving a gracious answer at
Corunna, set out at once, and arrived at
Bayonne
Bayonne () is a city in southwestern France near the France–Spain border, Spanish border. It is a communes of France, commune and one of two subprefectures in France, subprefectures in the Pyrénées-Atlantiques departments of France, departm ...
with his son and his three daughters. The prince met him at
Capbreton and rode with him to Bordeaux. Many of the prince's lords, both English and Gascon, were unwilling that he should espouse Peter's cause, but he declared that it was not fitting that a bastard should inherit a kingdom or drive out his lawfully born brother, and that no king or king's son ought to suffer such disrespect to royalty; nor could any turn him from his determination to restore the king.
Peter won friends by declaring that he would make Edward's son king of Galicia and would divide his riches among those who helped him. A parliament was held at Bordeaux, in which it was decided to ask the wishes of the English king. Edward III replied that it was right that his son should help Peter, and the prince held another parliament at which the king's letter was read. Then the lords agreed to give their help, provided that their pay was secured to them. To give them the required security, the prince agreed to lend Peter whatever money was necessary.
Edward and Peter then held a conference with
Charles of Navarre at Bayonne and agreed with him to allow their troops to pass through his dominions. To persuade him to do this, Peter had, besides other grants, to pay Charles 56,000
florin
The Florentine florin was a gold coin (in Italian ''Fiorino d'oro'') struck from 1252 to 1533 with no significant change in its design or metal content standard during that time.
It had 54 grains () of nominally pure or 'fine' gold with a pu ...
s, and this sum was lent him by Edward. On 23 September a series of agreements (the
Treaty of Libourne) were entered into between Edward, Peter, and Charles at
Libourne
Libourne (; ) is a commune in the Gironde department in Nouvelle-Aquitaine in southwestern France. It is a sub-prefecture of the department.
It is the wine-making capital of northern Gironde and lies near Saint-Émilion and Pomerol.
Geog ...
, by which Peter covenanted to put the prince in possession of the province of Biscay and the territory and fortress of
Castro de Urdialès as pledges for the repayment of this debt, to pay 550,000 florins for six months' wages at specified dates, 250,000 florins being the prince's wages, and 800,000 florins the wages of the lords who were to serve in the expedition. Peter consented to leave his three daughters in Edward's hands as hostages for the fulfilment of these terms, and he further agreed that whenever the king, the prince, or their heirs, the king of England, should march in person against the
Moors
The term Moor is an Endonym and exonym, exonym used in European languages to designate the Muslims, Muslim populations of North Africa (the Maghreb) and the Iberian Peninsula (particularly al-Andalus) during the Middle Ages.
Moors are not a s ...
, they should have the command of the vanguard before all other Christian kings, and that if they were not present the banner of the king of England should be carried in the vanguard side by side with the banner of Castile.
Edward received 100,000 francs from his father out of the ransom of John II, the late king of France, and broke up his plate to help to pay the soldiers he was taking into his pay. While his army was assembling he remained at Angoulême and was there visited by Peter. He then stayed over Christmas at Bordeaux, where Joan gave birth to their second son
Richard
Richard is a male given name. It originates, via Old French, from compound of the words descending from Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic ''*rīk-'' 'ruler, leader, king' and ''*hardu-'' 'strong, brave, hardy', and it therefore means 'st ...
. Prince Edward left Bordeaux early in February 1367 and joined his army at
Dax where he remained three days and received a reinforcement of 400 men-at-arms and 400 archers sent out by Edward III under his brother John of Gaunt. From Dax, Edward advanced via
Saint-Jean-Pied-de-Port
Saint-Jean-Pied-de-Port (literally "Saint John t theFoot of hePass"; ; ; ) is a Communes of France, commune in the Pyrénées-Atlantiques Departments of France, department in south-western France. It is close to Ostabat in the Pyrenean f ...
through
Roncesvalles (in the
Pyrenees
The Pyrenees are a mountain range straddling the border of France and Spain. They extend nearly from their union with the Cantabrian Mountains to Cap de Creus on the Mediterranean coast, reaching a maximum elevation of at the peak of Aneto. ...
) to
Pamplona
Pamplona (; ), historically also known as Pampeluna in English, is the capital city of the Navarre, Chartered Community of Navarre, in Spain.
Lying at near above sea level, the city (and the wider Cuenca de Pamplona) is located on the flood pl ...
(the capital of
Kingdom of Navarre
The Kingdom of Navarre ( ), originally the Kingdom of Pamplona, occupied lands on both sides of the western Pyrenees, with its northernmost areas originally reaching the Atlantic Ocean (Bay of Biscay), between present-day Spain and France.
The me ...
).
When Calveley and other English and Gascon leaders of free companies found that Prince Edward was about to fight for Peter, they withdrew from the service of
Henry of Trastámara and joined Edward "because he was their natural lord". While the prince was at Pamplona he received a letter of defiance from Henry. From Pamplona Edward marched by
Arruiz to
Salvatierra, which opened its gates to his army, and thence advanced to
Vitoria, intending to march on
Burgos
Burgos () is a city in Spain located in the autonomous community of Castile and León. It is the capital and most populous municipality of the province of Burgos.
Burgos is situated in the north of the Iberian Peninsula, on the confluence of th ...
by this direct route. A body of his knights, which he had sent out to reconnoitre under
Sir William Felton, was defeated by a skirmishing party, and he found that Henry had occupied some strong positions, and especially
Santo Domingo de la Calzada on the right of the river
Ebro
The Ebro (Spanish and Basque ; , , ) is a river of the north and northeast of the Iberian Peninsula, in Spain. It rises in Cantabria and flows , almost entirely in an east-southeast direction. It flows into the Mediterranean Sea, forming a de ...
, and
Zaldiaran mountain on the left, which made it impossible for him to reach Burgos through
Álava
Álava () or Araba (), officially Araba/Álava, is a Provinces of Spain, province of Spain and a historical territory of the Basque Country (autonomous community), Basque Country, heir of the ancient Basque señoríos#Lords of Álava, Lordship ...
. Accordingly he crossed the Ebro and encamped under the walls of
Logroño
Logroño ( , , ) is the capital of the autonomous community of La Rioja (Spain), La Rioja, Spain. Located in the north of the Iberian Peninsula, primarily in the right (South) bank of the Ebro River, Logroño has historically been a place of pa ...
. During these movements the prince's army had suffered from want of provisions both for men and horses, and from wet and windy weather. At Logroño, however, though provisions were still scarce, they were somewhat better off.
On 30 March 1367, the prince wrote an answer to Henry's letter. On 2 April he left Logroño and moved to
Navarrete, La Rioja. Meanwhile, Henry and his French allies had encamped at
Nájera, so that the two armies were now near each other. Letters passed between Henry and Edward, for Henry seems to have been anxious to make terms. He declared that Peter was a tyrant and had shed much innocent blood, to which Edward replied that Peter had told him that all the persons he had slain were traitors. On the morning of 3 April, Edward's army marched from Navarrete, and all dismounted while they were yet some distance from Henry's army. The
vanguard
The vanguard (sometimes abbreviated to van and also called the advance guard) is the leading part of an advancing military formation. It has a number of functions, including seeking out the enemy and securing ground in advance of the main force.
...
, in which were 3,000 men-at-arms, both English and Bretons, was led by Lancaster, Chandos, Calveley, and Clisson; the right division was commanded by Armagnac and other Gascon lords; the left, in which some German mercenaries marched with the Gascons, by
Jean, Captal de Buch, and the Count of Foix; the rear or main battle by Edward with 3,000 lances; with the prince was Peter and the dethroned
James of Majorca and his company; the numbers, however, are scarcely to be depended on.
Before the
Battle of Nájera
The Battle of Nájera, also known as the Battle of Navarrete, was fought on 3 April 1367 to the northeast of Nájera, in the province of La Rioja, Castile. It was an episode of the first Castilian Civil War which confronted King Peter of Ca ...
began, Edward prayed aloud to God that as he had come that day to uphold the right and reinstate a disinherited king, God would grant him success. Then, after telling Peter that he should know that day whether he should have his kingdom or not, he cried: "Advance, banner, in the name of God and
Saint George
Saint George (;Geʽez: ጊዮርጊስ, , ka, გიორგი, , , died 23 April 303), also George of Lydda, was an early Christian martyr who is venerated as a saint in Christianity. According to holy tradition, he was a soldier in the ...
; and God defend our right". The knights of Castile attacked and
pressed the English vanguard, but the wings of Henry's army failed to move, so that the Gascon lords were able to attack the main body on the flanks. Then Edward brought the main body of his army into action, and the fighting became intense for he had under him "the flower of chivalry, and the most famous warriors in the whole world". At length Henry's vanguard gave way, and he fled from the field. When the battle was over Edward asked Peter to spare the lives of those who had offended him. Peter assented, with the exception of one notorious traitor, whom he at once put to death; and he also had two others slain the next day.
Among the prisoners was the French marshal
Arnoul d'Audrehem, whom Edward had formerly taken prisoner at Poitiers and whom he had released on d'Audrehem giving his word that he would not bear arms against the prince until his ransom was paid. When Edward saw him he reproached him bitterly and called him "liar and traitor". D'Audrehem denied that he was either, and Edward asked him whether he would submit to the judgment of a body of knights. To this d'Audrehem agreed, and Edward chose 12 knights—four English, four Gascons, and four Bretons—to judge between him and the marshal. After he had stated his case, d'Audrehem replied that he had not broken his word, for the army Edward led was not his own; he was merely in the pay of Peter. The knights considered that this view of Edward's position was sound and gave their verdict for d'Audrehem.
On 5 April 1367, Edward and Peter marched to
Burgos
Burgos () is a city in Spain located in the autonomous community of Castile and León. It is the capital and most populous municipality of the province of Burgos.
Burgos is situated in the north of the Iberian Peninsula, on the confluence of th ...
, where they celebrated Easter. Edward, however, did not take up his quarters in the city but camped outside the walls at the
Monastery of Las Huelgas. Peter did not pay him any of the money he owed him, and Edward could get nothing from him except a solemn renewal of his bond of the previous 23 September, which he made on 2 May 1367 before the high altar of the
Cathedral of Burgos. By this time, Edward began to suspect his ally of treachery. Peter had no intention of paying his debts, and when Edward demanded possession of Biscay, Peter told him that the Biscayans would not consent to be handed over to him. To get rid of his creditor, Peter told Edward that he could not get money at Burgos and persuaded Edward to take up his quarters at
Valladolid
Valladolid ( ; ) is a Municipalities of Spain, municipality in Spain and the primary seat of government and ''de facto'' capital of the Autonomous communities of Spain, autonomous community of Castile and León. It is also the capital of the pr ...
while he went to Seville, whence he declared he would send the money he owed.
Edward remained at
Valladolid
Valladolid ( ; ) is a Municipalities of Spain, municipality in Spain and the primary seat of government and ''de facto'' capital of the Autonomous communities of Spain, autonomous community of Castile and León. It is also the capital of the pr ...
during some very hot weather, waiting in vain for his money. His army suffered so terribly from dysentery and other diseases that it is said that scarcely one Englishman out of five ever saw England again. Edward was seized with a sickness from which he never thoroughly recovered and which some said was caused by poison. Food and drink were scarce, and the free companies in his pay did much mischief to the surrounding country.
Meanwhile, Henry made war upon Aquitaine, took
Bagnères and wasted the country. Fearing that Charles of Navarre would not allow him to return through his dominions, Edward negotiated with King
Peter IV of Aragon
Peter IV (Catalan: ''Pere IV d'Aragó;'' Aragonese; ''Pero IV d'Aragón;'' 5 September 1319 – 6 January 1387), called the Ceremonious (Catalan: ''El Cerimoniós''; Aragonese: ''el Ceremonioso''), was from 1336 until his death the king of ...
for a passage for his troops. Peter IV made a treaty with him, and when Charles of Navarre heard of it he agreed to allow Edward, the Duke of Lancaster, and some of their lords to pass through his country; so they returned through
Roncesvalles and reached Bordeaux early in September 1367.
War in Aquitaine (1366–70)
Some time after he had returned to Aquitaine the free companies, some 6,000 strong, also reached Aquitaine, having passed through
Kingdom of Aragon
The Kingdom of Aragon (; ; ; ) was a medieval and early modern Monarchy, kingdom on the Iberian Peninsula, corresponding to the modern-day Autonomous communities of Spain, autonomous community of Aragon, in Spain. It became a part of the larger ...
. As they had not received the whole of the money Edward had agreed to pay them, they took up their quarters in his country and began to do much mischief. Edward persuaded the captains to leave Aquitaine, and the companies under their command crossed the Loire and did much damage to France. This greatly angered Charles V, who about this time did the prince serious mischief by encouraging disaffection among the Gascon lords.
When Edward had been gathering his army for his Spanish expedition, the
Lord of Albret had agreed to serve with 1,000 lances. Considering, however, that he had at least as many men as he could find provisions for, Edward on 8 December 1366 had written to him requesting that he would bring only 200 lances. The Lord of Albret was much incensed at this, and, though peace was made by his uncle the Count of Armagnac, did not forget the offence, and Froissart speaks of it as the "first cause of hatred between him and the prince". A more powerful cause of this lord's discontent was the non-payment of an annual pension which had been granted him by Edward. About this time he agreed to marry
Margaret of Bourbon, sister of the queen of France. Edward was annoyed at this betrothal and, his temper probably being soured by sickness and disappointment, behaved with rudeness to both Albret and his intended bride. On the other hand, Charles offered the lord the pension which he had lost, and thus drew him and his uncle, the Count of Armagnac, altogether over to the French side.
The immense cost of the late campaign and his constant extravagance had brought Edward into financial difficulties, and as soon as he returned to Bordeaux he called an assembly of the estates of Aquitaine (Parliament) to meet at
Saint-Émilion
Saint-Émilion (; Gascon dialect, Gascon: ''Sent Milion'') is a Communes of France, commune in the Gironde department in Nouvelle-Aquitaine in Southwestern France.
In the heart of the country of Libournais (the area around Libourne), in a regio ...
to obtain a grant from them. It seems as though no business was done then, for in January 1368 he held a meeting of the estates at Angoulême and there persuaded them to allow him a
hearth tax
A hearth tax was a property tax in certain countries during the medieval and early modern period, levied on each hearth, thus by proxy on wealth. It was calculated based on the number of hearths, or fireplaces, within a municipal area and is con ...
of ten sous for five years. An edict for this tax was published on 25 January 1368. The chancellor, Bishop
John Harewell, held a conference at
Niort
Niort (; Poitevin: ''Niàu''; ; ) is a commune in the Deux-Sèvres department, western France. It is the prefecture of Deux-Sèvres.
The population of Niort is 58,707 (2017) and more than 177,000 people live in the urban area.
Geography
T ...
, at which he persuaded the barons of Poitou, Saintonge, Limousin, and Rouergue to agree to this tax, but the great vassals of the high marches refused, and on 20 June and again on 25 October the Counts of Armagnac,
Périgord
Périgord ( , ; ; or ) is a natural region and former province of France, which corresponds roughly to the current Dordogne department, now forming the northern part of the administrative region of Nouvelle-Aquitaine. It is divided into f ...
, and
Comminges
The Comminges (; Occitan language, Occitan/Gascon language, Gascon: ''Comenge'') is an ancient region of southern France in the foothills of the Pyrenees, corresponding approximately to the arrondissement of Saint-Gaudens in the departments of Fran ...
, and the lord of Albret laid their complaints before the king of France, declaring that he was their lord paramount. Meanwhile, Chandos, who strongly urged Edward against imposing this tax, had retired to his Norman estate.
Charles took advantage of these appeals, and on 25 January 1369 sent messengers to Prince Edward, who was then residing at Bordeaux, summoning him to appear in person before him in Paris and there receive judgment. He replied: "We will willingly attend at Paris on the day appointed since the king of France sends for us, but it shall be with our helmet on our head and sixty thousand men in our company". Prince Edward caused the messengers to be imprisoned, and in revenge for this the Counts of Périgord and Comminges and other lords set on Sir Thomas Wake, the high-steward of Rouergue, slew many of his men, and put him to flight. The prince sent for Chandos, who came to his help, and some fighting took place, though war was not yet declared. His health was now so feeble that he could not take part in active operations, for he was swollen with dropsy and could not ride. By 18 March 1369 more than nine hundred towns, castles, and other places signified in one way or another their adherence to the French cause.
Prince Edward had already warned his father of the intentions of the French king, but there was evidently a party at Edward III's court that was jealous of his power, and his warnings were slighted. In April 1369, however, war was declared. Edward sent the Earls of Cambridge and Pembroke to his assistance, and Sir Robert Knolles, who now again took service with him, added much to his strength. The war in Aquitaine was desultory and, though the English maintained their ground fairly in the field, every day that it was prolonged weakened their hold on the country.
On 1 January 1370, Prince Edward sustained a heavy loss in the death of Chandos. Several efforts were made by Edward to conciliate the Gascon lords, but they were fruitless and can only have served to weaken the prince's authority. It is probable that John of Gaunt was working against him at the English court, and when he was sent out in the summer to help his elder brother, he came with such extensive powers that he almost seemed as though he had come to supersede him.
In the spring, Charles raised two large armies for the invasion of Aquitaine; one, under
Louis I, Duke of Anjou, was to enter Guyenne by
La Reole and Bergerac, the other, under
John, Duke of Berry
John of Berry or John the Magnificent (French language, French: ''Jean de Berry'', ; 30 November 1340 – 15 June 1416) was Duke of Berry and Rulers of Auvergne, Auvergne and Count of Poitiers and Montpensier. His brothers were King Charles ...
, was to march towards Limousin and
Quercy
Quercy (; , locally ) is a former province of France located in the country's southwest, bounded on the north by Limousin, on the west by Périgord and Agenais, on the south by Gascony and Languedoc, and on the east by Rouergue and Auverg ...
, and both were to unite and besiege the prince in Angoulême. Ill as he was, Edward left his bed of sickness and gathered an army at
Cognac
Cognac ( , also , ) is a variety of brandy named after the Communes of France, commune of Cognac, France. It is produced in the surrounding wine-growing region in the Departments of France, departments of Charente and Charente-Maritime.
Cogn ...
where he was joined by the Barons of Poitou and Saintonge, and the Earls of Cambridge, Lancaster, and Pembroke. The two French armies gained many cities, united and laid siege to Limoges, which was treacherously surrendered to them by the bishop,
Jean de Murat de Cros, who had been one of the prince's trusted friends.
[ cites ''Froissart'', i. 620, Buchon; ''Cont''. Murimuth, p. 209.]

When Prince Edward heard of the surrender of Limoges to the French, he swore "by the soul of his father" that he would have the place again and would make the inhabitants pay dearly for their treachery.
He set out from Cognac with an army of about 4,000 men. Due to his sickness he was unable to mount his horse, and was carried in a litter. During the
siege of Limoges, the prince was determined to take the town and ordered the undermining of its walls. On 19 September, his miners succeeded in demolishing a large piece of wall which filled the ditches with its ruins. The town was then stormed, with the inevitable destruction and loss of life.
[ cites ''Froissart'', i. 620, Buchon; ''Cont''. Murimuth, p. 209.]
The Victorian historian
William Hunt, author of Prince Edward's biography in the ''
Dictionary of National Biography
The ''Dictionary of National Biography'' (''DNB'') is a standard work of reference on notable figures from British history, published since 1885. The updated ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'' (''ODNB'') was published on 23 September ...
'' (1889), relying on Froissart as a source, wrote that when the bishop (who was the most responsible for the surrender) was brought before Edward, he told the bishop that his head should be cut off (Lancaster persuaded him not to carry out the deed), but that the city was nevertheless pillaged and burnt, and that 3,000 persons of all ranks and ages were massacred.
However, modern scholarship, including the historian
Richard Barber writing in 2008 in the ''
Oxford Dictionary of National Biography
The ''Dictionary of National Biography'' (''DNB'') is a standard work of reference on notable figures from History of the British Isles, British history, published since 1885. The updated ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'' (''ODNB'') ...
'' and drawing on a wider range of evidence, places casualties much lower than Froissart did – around 300 garrison soldiers and civilians in total. Edward returned to Cognac; his sickness increased, and he was forced to give up all hope of being able to direct any further operations and to proceed first to Angoulème and then to Bordeaux.
Return to England
The death of Edward's eldest son,
Edward of Angoulême, in 1371 caused him a great deal of grief. His health continued to deteriorate, and his personal doctor advised him to return to England. Edward left Aquitaine with the Duke of Lancaster and landed at Southampton early in January 1371. Edward met his father at Windsor. At this meeting, Prince Edward interceded to stop a treaty Edward III had made the previous month with Charles of Navarre because he did not agree to the ceding of lands King Charles demanded in it. After this, Edward returned to his manor in Berkhamsted.
On his return to England, Edward was probably at once recognised as the natural opponent of the influence exercised by the anti-clerical and Lancastrian party, and it is evident that the clergy trusted him; on 2 May he met the
convocation of Canterbury at the Savoy and persuaded them to make an exceptionally large grant. His health began to improve, and in August 1372 he sailed with his father to the relief of
Thouars; but contrary winds meant that the fleet never reached the French coast. On 6 October he resigned the principality of Aquitaine and Gascony, giving as his reason that its revenues were no longer sufficient to cover expenses; he acknowledged his resignation in Parliament the next month. At the conclusion of this parliament, after the knights had been dismissed, he met the citizens and burgesses "in a room near the white chamber" and prevailed on them to extend the customs granted the year before for the protection of merchant shipping for another year.
Edward's illness returned in force, though when the "
Good Parliament
The Good Parliament is the name traditionally given to the English Parliament of 1376. Sitting in London from April 28 to July 10, it was the longest Parliament up until that time.
It took place during a time when the English court was perceiv ...
" met on 28 April 1376 he was looked upon as the chief support of the commons in their attack on the abuses of the administration, and evidently acted in concert with
William of Wykeham
William of Wykeham (; 1320 or 1324 – 27 September 1404) was Bishop of Winchester and Chancellor of England. He founded New College, Oxford, and New College School in 1379, and founded Winchester College in 1382. He was also the clerk of ...
in opposing the influence of Lancaster and the disreputable clique of courtiers who upheld it, and he had good cause to fear that his brother's power would prove dangerous to the prospects of his son Richard.
Richard Lyons, the king's financial agent who was impeached for gigantic frauds, sent him a bribe of £1,000 and other gifts, but Edward refused to receive it, though he afterwards said that it was a pity he had not kept it and sent it to pay the soldiers who were fighting for the kingdom.
Death
From the period of the Good Parliament, Edward knew that he was dying. His
dysentery
Dysentery ( , ), historically known as the bloody flux, is a type of gastroenteritis that results in bloody diarrhea. Other symptoms may include fever, abdominal pain, and a feeling of incomplete defecation. Complications may include dehyd ...
had become so violent on occasion, causing him to faint from weakness, that his household believed he had died. He left gifts for his servants in his will and said goodbye to Edward III, whom he asked to confirm his gifts, pay his debts quickly out of his estate, and protect his son
Richard
Richard is a male given name. It originates, via Old French, from compound of the words descending from Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic ''*rīk-'' 'ruler, leader, king' and ''*hardu-'' 'strong, brave, hardy', and it therefore means 'st ...
. Edward's illness is thought to have started after his victory at the Battle of Nájera in 1367, relapsing sporadically over the next 9 years of his life. There are several diverse infections or inflammatory conditions that may have led to his demise. These might include malaria (specifically vivax), brucellosis, inflammatory bowel disease, or long-term complications of acute dysentery. However, chronic dysentery is probably unlikely.
His death was announced at the
Palace of Westminster
The Palace of Westminster is the meeting place of the Parliament of the United Kingdom and is located in London, England. It is commonly called the Houses of Parliament after the House of Commons and the House of Lords, the two legislative ch ...
on 8 June 1376. In his last moments, he was attended by the
Bishop of Bangor
The Bishop of Bangor is the Ordinary (officer), ordinary of the Diocese of Bangor of the Church in Wales. The Episcopal see, see is based in the city of Bangor where the bishop's seat (''cathedra'') is at Bangor Cathedral, Cathedral Church of Sa ...
who urged him to ask forgiveness of God and of all those he had injured. He "made a very noble end, remembering God his Creator in his heart" and asked people to pray for him.
Edward was buried in
Canterbury Cathedral
Canterbury Cathedral is the cathedral of the archbishop of Canterbury, the spiritual leader of the Church of England and symbolic leader of the worldwide Anglican Communion. Located in Canterbury, Kent, it is one of the oldest Christianity, Ch ...
on 29September. His funeral and the design of
his tomb were conducted in accordance to the directions dictated in his will. It has a bronze effigy beneath a tester depicting the Holy
Trinity
The Trinity (, from 'threefold') is the Christian doctrine concerning the nature of God, which defines one God existing in three, , consubstantial divine persons: God the Father, God the Son (Jesus Christ) and God the Holy Spirit, thr ...
with his
heraldic achievementshis surcoat, helmet, shield and gauntletshung over the tester; they have since been replaced with replicas; the originals now reside in a glass-fronted cabinet within the cathedral. His epitaph inscribed around his effigy reads:
Such as thou art, sometime was I.
Such as I am, such shalt thou be.
I thought little on th'our of Death
So long as I enjoyed breath.
On earth I had great riches
Land, houses, great treasure, horses, money and gold.
But now a wretched captive am I,
Deep in the ground, lo here I lie.
My beauty great, is all quite gone,
My flesh is wasted to the bone.
Arms and heraldic badge
Arms: ''Quarterly, 1st and 4th azure semée of fleur-de-lys or'' (France Ancient); ''2nd and 3rd gules, three lions passant guardant or'' (England); ''overall a label of three points argent''. Crest: ''On a chapeau gules turned up ermine, a lion statant or gorged with a label of three points argent''. Mantling: ''gules lined ermine''. Edward's
coat of arms as Prince of Wales were those of the kingdom, differenced by ''a label of three points argent''.Edward also used an alternative coat of ''Sable, three ostrich feathers argent'', described as his "shield for peace" (probably meaning the shield he used for
jousting
Jousting is a medieval and renaissance martial game or hastilude between two combatants either on horse or on foot. The joust became an iconic characteristic of the knight in Romantic medievalism.
The term is derived from Old French , ultim ...
). This shield can be seen several times on his tomb chest, alternating with the differenced royal arms. John of Gaunt used a similar shield on which the ostrich feathers were
ermine. Edward's "shield for peace" is believed to have inspired the badge of
three ostrich feathers used by later
Princes of Wales. The motto "Ich dien" means "I serve".
Family
Edward
married his cousin Joan, Countess of Kent, on 10 October 1361. She was the daughter and heiress of
Edmund, Earl of Kent, the younger son of King
Edward I
Edward I (17/18 June 1239 – 7 July 1307), also known as Edward Longshanks and the Hammer of the Scots (Latin: Malleus Scotorum), was King of England from 1272 to 1307. Concurrently, he was Lord of Ireland, and from 125 ...
by his second wife
Margaret of France. They had two sons, both born in Aquitaine:
*
Edward of Angoulême, born at Angoulême on 27 January 1365, died immediately before his father's return to England in January 1371, and was buried in the church of the
Austin Friars, London
*
Richard
Richard is a male given name. It originates, via Old French, from compound of the words descending from Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic ''*rīk-'' 'ruler, leader, king' and ''*hardu-'' 'strong, brave, hardy', and it therefore means 'st ...
, who succeeded his grandfather as king
From his marriage to Joan he also became stepfather to her children by
Thomas Holland:
*
Thomas Holland, 2nd Earl of Kent
Thomas Holland, 2nd Earl of Kent (135025 April 1397) was an English nobleman and a councillor of his half-brother, King Richard II of England.
Family and early life
Thomas Holland was born in Upholland, Lancashire, in 1350. He was the eldest ...
, whose daughter,
Joan Holland, later married Edward's brother,
Edmund of Langley.
*
John Holland, 1st Duke of Exeter
John Holland, 1st Duke of Exeter, 1st Earl of Huntingdon ( 1352 – 16 January 1400) of Dartington Hall in Devon, was a half-brother of King Richard II (1377–1399), to whom he remained strongly loyal. He is primarily remembered for being suspe ...
, who married Edward's niece,
Elizabeth of Lancaster, daughter of his brother,
John of Gaunt
John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster (6 March 1340 – 3 February 1399), was an English royal prince, military leader and statesman. He was the fourth son (third surviving) of King Edward III of England, and the father of King Henry IV. Because ...
.
*
Joan Holland, Duchess of Brittany, who married
John IV, Duke of Brittany
John IV the Conqueror Order of the Garter, KG (in Breton language, Breton Yann IV, in French Jean IV, and traditionally in English sources both John of Montfort and John V) (1339 – 1 November 1399), was Duke of Brittany and Montfort of Britt ...
*
Maud Holland, Lady Courtenay, Countess of Ligny, Countess of St Pol, who married firstly, Hugh Courtenay, grandson of
Hugh de Courtenay, 10th Earl of Devon; Secondly,
Waleran III of Luxembourg, Count of Ligny. No issue from either marriage
* Edmund Holland (c. 1354), who died young
Edward had several
natural sons before his marriage.
With Edith de Willesford (died after 1385):
* Sir
Roger Clarendon ( – executed 1402); he married Margaret (d. 1382), a daughter of John Fleming, Baron de la Roche.
With unknown mother:
* Sir John Sounders
Ancestry
Appellation "Black Prince"

Edward is often referred to as the "Black Prince". The first known source to use this
sobriquet
A sobriquet ( ) is a descriptive nickname, sometimes assumed, but often given by another. A sobriquet is distinct from a pseudonym in that it is typically a familiar name used in place of a real name without the need for explanation; it may beco ...
was the
antiquary
An antiquarian or antiquary () is an aficionado or student of antiquities or things of the past. More specifically, the term is used for those who study history with particular attention to ancient artefacts, archaeological and historic sit ...
John Leland in the 1530s or early 1540s (about 165 years after Edward's death). Leland mentions it in two manuscript notes of this period, with the implication that it was in relatively widespread use by that date. In one instance, he refers in Latin to "''Edwardi Principis cog: Nigri''" (i.e., "Edward the Prince,
cognomen
A ''cognomen'' (; : ''cognomina''; from ''co-'' "together with" and ''(g)nomen'' "name") was the third name of a citizen of ancient Rome, under Roman naming conventions. Initially, it was a nickname, but lost that purpose when it became hereditar ...
: The Black"); in the other, in English to "the Blake Prince". In both instances, Leland is summarising earlier works – respectively, the 14th-century ''Eulogium Historiarum'' and the late 15th-century chronicle attributed to
John Warkworth – but in neither case does the name appear in his source texts. In print,
Roger Ascham in his 1545 ''
Toxophilus
''Toxophilus'' is a book about longbow archery by Roger Ascham, first published in London in 1545. Dedicated to King Henry VIII, it is the first book on archery written in English.
Ascham was a keen archer and a lecturer at St John's College ...
'' refers to "ye noble black prince Edward beside Poeters"; while
Richard Grafton in his 1569 ''Chronicle at Large'' uses the name on three occasions, saying that "some writers name him the black prince", and elsewhere that he was "commonly called the black Prince".
Raphael Holinshed
Raphael Holinshed (; before 24 April 1582) was an English chronicler, who was most famous for his work on ''The Chronicles of England, Scotlande, and Irelande'', commonly known as ''Holinshed's Chronicles''. It was the "first complete printed h ...
uses it several times in his 1577 ''
Chronicles''; and it is also used by
William Shakespeare
William Shakespeare ( 23 April 1564 – 23 April 1616) was an English playwright, poet and actor. He is widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called England's nation ...
in his plays ''
Richard II'' (written c. 1595; Act 2, scene 3) and ''
Henry V'' (c. 1599; Act 2, scene 4). In 1688, it appears in the title of
Joshua Barnes's ''The History of that Most Victorious Monarch, Edward IIId, King of England and France, and Lord of Ireland, and First Founder of the Most Noble Order of the Garter: Being a Full and Exact Account Of the Life and Death of the said King: Together with That of his Most Renowned Son, Edward, Prince of Wales and of Aquitain, Sirnamed the Black-Prince''.
The origins of the name are uncertain, though many theories have been proposed, falling under two main themes, that it is derived from Edward's black shield (and/or the rumours that he wore black armour), or from his brutal reputation, particularly towards the French in Aquitaine. It was possibly intended as a ''
double entendre
A double entendre (plural double entendres) is a figure of speech or a particular way of wording that is devised to have a double meaning, one of which is typically obvious, and the other often conveys a message that would be too socially unacc ...
'', combining these two meanings.
The black (''
sable
The sable (''Martes zibellina'') is a species of marten, a small omnivorous mammal primarily inhabiting the forest environments of Russia, from the Ural Mountains throughout Siberia, and northern Mongolia. Its habitat also borders eastern Kaz ...
'') field of his "shield for peace" is well documented. However, there is no sound evidence that Edward wore black armour, although
John Harvey (without citing a source) refers to "some rather shadowy evidence that he was described in French as clad at the battle of Crécy ' ''en armure noire en fer bruni'' ' – in black armour of burnished steel".
Richard Barber suggests that the name's origins may have lain
in pageantry, in that a tradition may have grown up in the 15th century of representing the prince in black armour. He points out that several chronicles refer to him as Edward IV (the title he would have taken as king had he outlived his father): this name would obviously have become confusing when the actual
Edward IV
Edward IV (28 April 1442 – 9 April 1483) was King of England from 4 March 1461 to 3 October 1470, then again from 11 April 1471 until his death in 1483. He was a central figure in the Wars of the Roses, a series of civil wars in England ...
succeeded in 1461, and this may have been the period when an alternative had to be found.
Edward's reputation for brutality in France is well documented, and it is possible that this is where the title had its origins. French soldier
Philippe de Mézières refers to Edward as the greatest of the "black boars" – those aggressors who had done so much to disrupt relations within Christendom. Other French writers made similar associations, and Peter Hoskins reports that an oral tradition of ''L'Homme Noir'', who had passed by with an army, survived in southern France until recent years. In Shakespeare's ''Henry V'', the King of France alludes to "that black name, Edward, Black Prince of Wales".
John Speed
John Speed (1551 or 1552 – 28 July 1629) was an English cartographer, chronologer and historian of Cheshire origins.; superseding . The son of a citizen and Merchant Taylor in London,"Life of John Speed", ''The Hibernian Magazine, Or, Compe ...
reported in 1611 that the Black Prince was so named "not of his colour, but of his dreaded Acts in battell"; a comment echoed in 1642 by
Thomas Fuller, who wrote that he was named "from his dreaded acts and not from his complexion". Joshua Barnes claimed in 1688 that it was from the time of the Battle of Crécy that "the ''French'' began to call
im''Le Neoir'', or the ''Black-Prince''", appearing to cite a record of 2
Richard II (i.e. 1378–1379); but his reference is insufficiently precise to be traceable.
However, it is unclear how a French sobriquet might have crossed to England, and Barber finds this derivation of the name "unlikely".
See also
*
Black Prince's Ruby
The Black Prince's Ruby is a large, irregular cabochon red spinel weighing set in the cross pattée above the Cullinan II diamond at the front of the Imperial State Crown of the United Kingdom.
The spinel is one of the oldest gems in the Cr ...
, which he forced
Peter of Castile
Peter (; 30 August 133423 March 1369), called Peter the Cruel () or the Just (), was King of Castile and León from 1350 to 1369. Peter was the last ruler of the main branch of the House of Ivrea. He was excommunicated by Pope Urban V for h ...
to give to him after the Castilian campaign. It is actually a large red
spinel
Spinel () is the magnesium/aluminium member of the larger spinel group of minerals. It has the formula in the cubic crystal system. Its name comes from the Latin word , a diminutive form of ''spine,'' in reference to its pointed crystals.
Prop ...
, now set at the front of the British
Imperial State Crown
The Imperial State Crown is the state crown of the British monarch. Based on the design of Queen Victoria's Crown of 1838, which had fallen into disrepair, it was made in 1937 for the coronation of King George VI. The crown remains in use today ...
. (Originally, the term "ruby" was given to any red gemstone.)
*
Black Prince (tank) A43 Infantry Tank, a British experimental AFV design, essentially a "super
Churchill" of which six prototypes were built very late in World War II.
*
Cultural depictions of Edward the Black Prince
*
HMS ''Black Prince'', for
Royal Navy
The Royal Navy (RN) is the naval warfare force of the United Kingdom. It is a component of His Majesty's Naval Service, and its officers hold their commissions from the King of the United Kingdom, King. Although warships were used by Kingdom ...
ships named in his honour
*
Junio Valerio Borghese
Junio Valerio Scipione Ghezzo Marcantonio Maria Borghese (6 June 1906 – 26 August 1974), nicknamed The Black Prince, was an Italian Navy commander during the regime of Benito Mussolini's National Fascist Party and a prominent hardline neo-fa ...
, an Italian Navy commander also known as the Black Prince due to his aristocratic connections and adherence to fascism.
*
List of knights and ladies of the Garter
Notes
References
Sources
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Other sources
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Sloane MS, S. 56 and 335;
* For the battle of Poitiers
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* For the Spanish campaign,
* For other references see under , in text of above article, and in the notes of M. Luce's Froissart.
Further reading
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** – eulogistic and wordy, but useful; in the edition of 1836 James defends his work from the strictures of the Athenæum;
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External links
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Welsh title:
Owain Glyndwr (1400/15)
{{DEFAULTSORT:Edward, The Black Prince
1330 births
1376 deaths
14th-century English nobility
14th-century peers of France
Basque history
Burials at Canterbury Cathedral
Children of Edward III of England
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House of Plantagenet
Garter Knights appointed by Edward III
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