Ecological modernization is a school of thought that argues that both the state and the market can work together to protect the environment.
[Mol, A.P.J, G Spaargaren, and D.A Sonnenfeld. “Ecological Modernization Theory: Taking Stock, Moving Forward.” In ''Routledge International Handbook of Social and Environmental Change'', 31–46. Routledge, 2013.] It has gained increasing attention among scholars and policymakers in the last several decades internationally. It is an analytical approach as well as a policy strategy and
environmental discourse
Discourse is a generalization of the notion of a conversation to any form of communication. Discourse is a major topic in social theory, with work spanning fields such as sociology, anthropology, continental philosophy, and discourse analysis. F ...
(Hajer, 1995).
Origins and key elements
Ecological modernization emerged in the early 1980s within a group of scholars at Free University and the Social Science Research Centre in Berlin, among them
Joseph Huber, and . Various authors pursued similar ideas at the time, e.g.
Arthur H. Rosenfeld,
Amory Lovins, Donald Huisingh, René Kemp, or
Ernst Ulrich von Weizsäcker. Further substantial contributions were made by
Arthur P.J. Mol,
Gert Spaargaren and
David A Sonnenfeld (Mol and Sonnenfeld, 2000; Mol, 2001).
One basic assumption of ecological modernization relates to environmental readaptation of economic growth and industrial development. On the basis of
enlightened self-interest, economy and ecology can be favourably combined: Environmental
productivity
Productivity is the efficiency of production of goods or services expressed by some measure. Measurements of productivity are often expressed as a ratio of an aggregate output to a single input or an aggregate input used in a production proce ...
, i.e. productive use of natural resources and environmental media (air, water, soil, ecosystems), can be a source of future growth and development in the same way as
labour productivity and capital productivity. This includes increases in energy and
resource efficiency as well as product and process innovations such as environmental management and sustainable
supply chain management
In commerce, supply chain management (SCM) deals with a system of procurement (purchasing raw materials/components), operations management, logistics and marketing channels, through which raw materials can be developed into finished produc ...
,
clean technologies, benign substitution of hazardous substances, and product design for environment. Radical innovations in these fields can not only reduce quantities of resource turnover and emissions, but also change the quality or structure of the
industrial metabolism. In the co-evolution of humans and nature, and in order to upgrade the environment's
carrying capacity, ecological modernization gives humans an active role to play, which may entail conflicts with nature conservation.
There are different understandings of the scope of ecological modernization - whether it is just about techno-industrial progress and related aspects of policy and economy, and to what extent it also includes cultural aspects (ecological modernization of mind, value orientations, attitudes, behaviour and lifestyles). Similarly, there is some pluralism as to whether ecological modernization would need to rely mainly on government, or markets and entrepreneurship, or civil society, or some sort of
multi-level governance
Multi-level (or multilevel) governance is a term used to describe the way power is spread vertically between levels of government and horizontally across multiple quasi-government and non-governmental organizations and actors. This situation dev ...
combining the three. Some scholars explicitly refer to general
modernization theory as well as non-Marxist
world-system theory, others don't.
Ultimately, however, there is a common understanding that ecological modernization will have to result in innovative structural change. So research is now still more focused on environmental innovations, or eco-innovations, and the interplay of various societal factors (scientific, economic, institutional, legal, political, cultural) which foster or hamper such innovations (Klemmer et al., 1999; Huber, 2004; Weber and Hemmelskamp, 2005; Olsthoorn and Wieczorek, 2006).
Ecological modernization shares a number of features with neighbouring, overlapping approaches. Among the most important are
*the concept of
sustainable development
Sustainable development is an approach to growth and Human development (economics), human development that aims to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.United Nations General ...
*the approach of
industrial metabolism (
Ayres and
Simonis, 1994)
*the concept of
industrial ecology (
Socolow, 1994)
Additional elements
A special topic of ecological modernization research during recent years was ''sustainable household'', i.e. environment-oriented reshaping of lifestyles, consumption patterns, and demand-pull control of supply chains (Vergragt, 2000; OECD 2002).
Some scholars of ecological modernization share an interest in
industrial symbiosis, i.e. inter-site recycling that helps to reduce the consumption of resources via increasing efficiency (i.e. pollution prevention, waste reduction), typically by taking externalities from one economic production process and using them as raw material inputs for another (Christoff, 1996).
Ecological modernization also relies on product life-cycle assessment and the analysis of materials and energy flows. In this context, ecological modernization promotes 'cradle to cradle' manufacturing (
Braungart and
McDonough, 2002), contrasted against the usual 'cradle to grave' forms of manufacturing - where waste is not re-integrated back into the production process.
Another special interest in the ecological modernization literature has been the role of
social movement
A social movement is either a loosely or carefully organized effort by a large group of people to achieve a particular goal, typically a Social issue, social or Political movement, political one. This may be to carry out a social change, or to re ...
s and the emergence of civil society as a key agent of change (
Fisher and Freudenburg, 2001).
As a
strategy
Strategy (from Greek στρατηγία ''stratēgia'', "troop leadership; office of general, command, generalship") is a general plan to achieve one or more long-term or overall goals under conditions of uncertainty. In the sense of the " a ...
of change, some forms of ecological modernization may be favored by
business
Business is the practice of making one's living or making money by producing or Trade, buying and selling Product (business), products (such as goods and Service (economics), services). It is also "any activity or enterprise entered into for ...
interests because they seemingly meet the triple bottom line of economics, society, and environment, which, it is held, underpin sustainability, yet do not challenge
free market
In economics, a free market is an economic market (economics), system in which the prices of goods and services are determined by supply and demand expressed by sellers and buyers. Such markets, as modeled, operate without the intervention of ...
principles. This contrasts with many
environmental movement
The environmental movement (sometimes referred to as the ecology movement) is a social movement that aims to protect the natural world from harmful environmental practices in order to create sustainable living. In its recognition of humanity a ...
perspectives, which regard
free trade
Free trade is a trade policy that does not restrict imports or exports. In government, free trade is predominantly advocated by political parties that hold Economic liberalism, economically liberal positions, while economic nationalist politica ...
and its notion of business self-regulation as part of the problem, or even an origin of
environmental degradation
Environment most often refers to:
__NOTOC__
* Natural environment, referring respectively to all living and non-living things occurring naturally and the physical and biological factors along with their chemical interactions that affect an organism ...
. Under ecological modernization, the
state is seen in a variety of roles and capacities: as the enabler for
markets that help produce the technological advances via competition; as the regulatory (see
regulation
Regulation is the management of complex systems according to a set of rules and trends. In systems theory, these types of rules exist in various fields of biology and society, but the term has slightly different meanings according to context. Fo ...
) medium through which
corporation
A corporation or body corporate is an individual or a group of people, such as an association or company, that has been authorized by the State (polity), state to act as a single entity (a legal entity recognized by private and public law as ...
s are forced to 'take back' their various wastes and re-integrate them in some manner into the production of new goods and services (e.g. the way that
car corporations in Germany are required to accept back cars they manufactured once those vehicles have reached the end of their product lifespan); and in some cases as an institution that is incapable of addressing critical local, national, and global environmental problems. In the latter case, ecological modernization shares with
Ulrich Beck (1999, 37-40) and others notions of the necessity of emergence of new forms of
environmental governance, sometimes referred to as subpolitics or political modernization, where the
environmental movement
The environmental movement (sometimes referred to as the ecology movement) is a social movement that aims to protect the natural world from harmful environmental practices in order to create sustainable living. In its recognition of humanity a ...
, community groups, businesses, and other stakeholders increasingly take on direct and leadership roles in stimulating environmental transformation. Political modernization of this sort requires certain supporting norms and institutions such as a free, independent, or at least critical press, basic
human rights
Human rights are universally recognized Morality, moral principles or Social norm, norms that establish standards of human behavior and are often protected by both Municipal law, national and international laws. These rights are considered ...
of expression, organization, and assembly, etc.
New media such as the
Internet
The Internet (or internet) is the Global network, global system of interconnected computer networks that uses the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to communicate between networks and devices. It is a internetworking, network of networks ...
greatly facilitate this.
Criticisms
Critics argue that ecological modernization will fail to protect
the environment and does nothing to alter the impulses within the capitalist economic mode of production (see
capitalism
Capitalism is an economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and their use for the purpose of obtaining profit. This socioeconomic system has developed historically through several stages and is defined by ...
) that inevitably lead to environmental degradation (Foster, 2002). As such, it is just a form of '
green-washing'. Critics question whether
technological
Technology is the application of conceptual knowledge to achieve practical goals, especially in a reproducible way. The word ''technology'' can also mean the products resulting from such efforts, including both tangible tools such as ute ...
advances alone can achieve resource conservation and better
environmental protection
Environmental protection, or environment protection, refers to the taking of measures to protecting the natural environment, prevent pollution and maintain ecological balance. Action may be taken by individuals, advocacy groups and governments. ...
, particularly if left to business
self-regulation practices (York and Rosa, 2003). For instance, many technological improvements are currently feasible but not widely utilized. The most
environmentally friendly product or manufacturing process (which is often also the most economically efficient) is not always the one automatically chosen by self-regulating corporations (e.g.
hydrogen
Hydrogen is a chemical element; it has chemical symbol, symbol H and atomic number 1. It is the lightest and abundance of the chemical elements, most abundant chemical element in the universe, constituting about 75% of all baryon, normal matter ...
or
biofuel
Biofuel is a fuel that is produced over a short time span from Biomass (energy), biomass, rather than by the very slow natural processes involved in the formation of fossil fuels such as oil. Biofuel can be produced from plants or from agricu ...
vs.
peak oil). In addition, some critics have argued that ecological modernization does not redress gross
injustices that are produced within the capitalist system, such as
environmental racism - where
people of color and low income earners bear a disproportionate burden of environmental harm such as pollution, and lack access to environmental benefits such as
parks, and
social justice issues such as eliminating
unemployment (Bullard, 1993; Gleeson and Low, 1999; Harvey, 1996) -
environmental racism is also referred to as issues of the asymmetric distribution of environmental resources and services (Everett & Neu, 2000). Moreover, the theory seems to have limited global efficacy, applying primarily to its countries of origin -
Germany
Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It lies between the Baltic Sea and the North Sea to the north and the Alps to the south. Its sixteen States of Germany, constituent states have a total popu ...
and the
Netherlands
, Terminology of the Low Countries, informally Holland, is a country in Northwestern Europe, with Caribbean Netherlands, overseas territories in the Caribbean. It is the largest of the four constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Nether ...
, and having little to say about the
developing world (Fisher and Freudenburg, 2001). Perhaps the harshest criticism though, is that ecological modernization is predicated upon the notion of '
sustainable growth', and in reality this is not possible because growth entails the consumption of natural and
human capital
Human capital or human assets is a concept used by economists to designate personal attributes considered useful in the production process. It encompasses employee knowledge, skills, know-how, good health, and education. Human capital has a subs ...
at great costs to
ecosystem
An ecosystem (or ecological system) is a system formed by Organism, organisms in interaction with their Biophysical environment, environment. The Biotic material, biotic and abiotic components are linked together through nutrient cycles and en ...
s and societies.
Ecological modernization, its effectiveness and applicability, strengths and limitations, remains a dynamic and contentious area of environmental social science research and policy discourse in the early 21st century.
See also
*
Bright green environmentalism
*
Ecological design
*
Ecological civilization
*
Ecomodernism
*
Environmental sociology
*
Reflexive modernization
*
Restoration ecology
*
Sustainable development
Sustainable development is an approach to growth and Human development (economics), human development that aims to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.United Nations General ...
References
*Ayres, R. U. and Simonis, U. E., 1994, ''Industrial Metabolism. Restructuring for Sustainable Development'', Tokyo, UN University Press.
*Beck, U., 1999, ''World Risk Society'', Cambridge, UK, Polity Press, .
*Braungart, M., and McDonough, W., 2002, ''Cradle to Cradle. Remaking the way we make things'', New York, N.Y., North Point Press.
*
*Bullard, R., (ed.) 1993, ''Confronting Environmental Racism: Voices from the Grassroots'', Boston, South End Press.
*Dickens, P. 2004, ''Society & Nature: Changing Our Environment, Changing Ourselves'', Cambridge, UK, Polity, .
*Everett, J., and Neu, D., 2000, "Ecological Modernization and the Limits of Environmental Accounting?", ''Accounting Forum,'' 24(1), pp. 5–29.
*Fisher, D.R., and Freudenburg, W.R., 2001,
Ecological modernization and its critics: Assessing the past and looking toward the future, ''Society and Natural Resources'', 14, pp. 701–709.
*Foster, J.B., 2002, ''Ecology Against Capitalism'', New York, Monthly Review Press.
*Gleeson, B. and Low, N. (eds.) 1999, ''Global Ethics and Environment'', London, Routledge.
*Hajer, M.A., 1995, ''The Politics of Environmental Discourse: Ecological Modernization and the Policy Process'', Oxford, UK, Oxford University Press, .
*Harvey, D., 1996, ''Justice, Nature and the Geography of Difference'', Malden, Ma., Blackwell, p. 377-402.
*Huber, J., 2004, ''New Technologies and Environmental Innovation'', Cheltenham, UK, Edward Elgar.
*Klemmer, P., et al., 1999, ''Environmental Innovations. Incentives and Barriers'', Berlin, Analytica.
*Mol, A.P.J., 2001, ''Globalization and Environmental Reform: The Ecological Modernization of the Global Economy'', Cambridge, Ma., MIT Press, .
*Mol, A.P.J., and Sonnenfeld, D.A., (eds.) 2000, ''Ecological Modernisation around the World: Perspectives and Critical Debates'', London and Portland, OR, Frank Cass/ Routledge, .
*Mol, A.P.J., Sonnenfeld, D.A., and Spaargaren, G., (eds.) 2009, ''The Ecological Modernisation Reader: Environmental Reform in Theory and Practice'', London and New York, Routledge, hardback, paperback.
*OECD (ed.), ''Towards Sustainable Household Consumption?'' Trends and Policies in OECD Countries, Paris, OECD Publ., 2002.
*Olsthoorn, X., and Wieczorek, A., (eds.) 2006, ''Understanding Industrial Transformation. Views from Different Disciplines'', Dordrecht: Springer.
*Redclift, M. R., and Woodgate, G. (eds.) 1997, ''The International Handbook of Environmental Sociology'', Cheltenham, UK, Edward Elgar, .
*Redclift, M. R., and Woodgate, G., (eds.) 2005, ''New Developments in Environmental Sociology'', Cheltenham, Edward Elgar, .
*Socolow, R. et al., (eds.) 1994, ''Industrial Ecology and Global Change'', Cambridge University Press.
*
*Vergragt, Ph., ''Strategies Towards the Sustainable Household'', SusHouse Project Final Report, Delft University of Technology, NL, 2000.
*
*
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