Eastern Zhou period

The Eastern Zhou (256 BCE) is a period in Chinese history comprising the latter two-thirds of the Zhou dynasty. The period follows the Western Zhou era and is named due to the Zhou royal court relocating the capital eastward from Fenghao (in present-day Xi'an, Shaanxi province) to Chengzhou (near present-day Luoyang, Henan province) after the fall and sacking of the old capital in the hand of Quanrong barbarians. The Eastern Zhou era was characterised by the progressively weakened authority of the Zhou royal house, and correspondingly increasing autonomy and military ambitions of various feudal states. It is subdivided into two periods: the Spring and Autumn period (), during which the ancient aristocracy still held nominal influence in a large number of separate polities; and the Warring States period (221 BCE), which saw the complete decentralization, escalation of interstate warfare and regional administrative sophistication.

History

According to traditional historical texts, such as the Records of the Grand Historian, in 770 BCE, the Zhou capital was moved from Haojing (Chang'an County in Xi'an City) to Chengzhou, near present-day Luoyang. With the death of King You of Zhou, the last king of the Western Zhou Dynasty, Crown Prince Yijiu was proclaimed the new king by the nobles from the states of Zheng, Lü, Qin and the Marquess of Shen. He became King Ping of Zhou. In the second year of his reign, he moved the capital east to Luoyi as Quanrong people invaded Haojing, spelling the end of the Western Zhou dynasty.

The recently discovered has challenged this view. Of the beginning of the Eastern Zhou period, it says:

Instead of King Ping being immediately accepted by the regional lords after his father's death, the Xinian claims that his younger brother (elsewhere called his uncle) Yuchen was crowned as King Hui at Xie (somewhere in the state of Guo). After he was killed in 750 BCE, there was no officially recognized King of Zhou for 9 more years, until marquis Wen of Jin brought Ping from Shao'e to the Royal Capital (almost certainly referring to Haojing) and enthroned him. Only three years after that in 738 BCE did he move to Chengzhou.

The Xinian manuscript is controversial. Marquis Wen of Jin was thought to have reigned from 781 BCE to 746 BCE, and so he could not have proclaimed Ping as King in 741 BCE nor move him to Chengzhou in 738 BCE. However, the strongest argument in favor of the Xinian's telling of events about King Ping comes from a passage in the Zuo Zhuan, which reads:

Prophecies in the Zuo Zhuan are not made randomly, and are usually precisely correct (except in cases where state calendars differed slightly, or when the prophecy was set to happen ''after'' the Zuo Zhuan was compiled). This prophecy is completely incorrect according to the traditional telling of King Ping's move east, but lines up perfectly with the Xinian's date.

The first half of the Eastern Zhou dynasty, from approximately 771 to 476 BCE, was called the Spring and Autumn period, during which more and more dukes and marquesses obtained regional autonomy, defying the king's court in Luoyi, and waging wars amongst themselves. The second half of the Eastern Zhou dynasty, from 475 to 221 BCE, was called the Warring States period, during which the King of Zhou gradually lost his relevance and ruled merely as a figurehead.

After moving the capital east, the Zhou royal family fell into a state of decline. Also, King Ping's popularity fell as rumors circulated that he had killed his father. With vassals becoming increasingly powerful, strengthening their position through defeating other rival states, and increasing invasion from neighboring countries, the king of Zhou was not able to master the country. Constantly, he would have to turn to the powerful vassals for help. The most important vassals, known later as the twelve vassals, came together in regular conferences where they decided important matters, such as military expeditions against foreign groups or against offending nobles. During these conferences one vassal ruler was sometimes declared hegemon. Chancellor Guan Zhong of Qi initiated a policy, "Revere the king, expel the barbarians" (, see Sonnō jōi). Adopting and adhering to it, Duke Huan of Qi assembled the vassals to strike down the threat of barbarians from the country. During the Warring States period, many of the leading vassals' clamoring for kingship further limited the Zhou royal family's influence.

In 635 BCE, the Chaos of Prince Dai took place. King Xiang of Zhou turned to Duke Wen of Jin for help, who killed Prince Dai and was rewarded with rule over Henei and Yangfan. In 632 BCE, King Xiang of Zhou was forced by Duke Wen of Jin to attend the conference of vassals in Jiantu.

In 606, King Zhuang of Chu inquired for the first time regarding the "weight of the Nine Tripod Cauldrons" only to be rebuffed by the Zhou minister Wangsun Man (). Asking such a question was, at that time, a direct challenge to the power and authority of the reigning dynasty.

At the time of King Nan of Zhou, the kings of Zhou had lost almost all political and military power, as even their remaining crown land was split into two states or factions, led by rival feudal lords: West Zhou, where the capital Wangcheng was located, and East Zhou, centered at Chengzhou and Kung. King Nan of Zhou managed to preserve his weakened dynasty through diplomacy and conspiracies for fifty-nine years until his deposition and death by Qin in 256 BCE. Seven years later, West Zhou was conquered by Qin.

Politics

The dominant material for making tools had become iron by the end of the Eastern Zhou; as such, it is considered to be the beginning of the Iron Age in China. There was a considerable development in agriculture with a consequent increase in population. There were constantly fights between vassals over land or other resources. People started using copper coins. Education was made universal for civilians. The boundaries between the nobility and the civilians subsided. A revolutionary transformation of the society was taking place, to which the patriarchal clan system made by the Zhou Dynasty could no longer adapt. Ray Huang：《中国大历史》

Kings

* King Ping of Zhou — Ji Yijiu (772–720 BCE)
* King Xie of Zhou — Ji Yuchen (770–760 BCE or 771–750 BCE)
* King Huan of Zhou — Ji Lin (719–697 BCE)
* King Zhuang of Zhou — Ji Tuo (696–682 BCE)
* King Xi of Zhou — Ji Huqi (681–677 BCE)
* King Hui of Zhou — Ji Lang (676–652 BCE)
* King Xiang of Zhou — Ji Zheng (651–619 BCE)
* King Qing of Zhou — Ji Renchen (618–613 BCE)
* King Kuang of Zhou — Ji Ban (612–607 BCE)
* King Ding of Zhou — Ji Yu (606–586 BCE)
* King Jian of Zhou — Ji Yi (585–572 BCE)
* King Ling of Zhou — Ji Xiexin (571–545 BCE)
* King Jing of Zhou — Ji Gui (544–520 BCE)
* King Dao of Zhou — Ji Meng (520 BCE)
* King Jing of Zhou — Ji Gai (519–477 BCE)
* King Yuan of Zhou — Ji Ren (476–469 BCE)
* King Zhending of Zhou — Ji Jie (468–441 BCE)
* King Ai of Zhou — Ji Quji (441 BCE)
* King Si of Zhou — Ji Shu (441 BCE)
* King Kao of Zhou — Ji Wei (440–426 BCE)
* King Weilie of Zhou — Ji Wu (425–402 BCE)
* King An of Zhou — Ji Jiao (401–376 BCE)
* King Lie of Zhou — Ji Xi (375–369 BCE)
* King Xian of Zhou — Ji Bian (368–321 BCE)
* King Shenjing of Zhou — Ji Ding (320–315 BCE)
* King Nan of Zhou — Ji Yan (314–256 BCE)

Spring and Autumn period

The period's name derives from the ''Spring and Autumn Annals'', a chronicle of the state of Lu between 722 and 479 BCE, which tradition associates with Confucius.

During this period, the Zhou royal authority over the various feudal states started to decline, as more and more dukes and marquesses obtained de facto regional autonomy, defied the king's court in Luoyi, and waged wars amongst themselves. The gradual partition of Jin, one of the most powerful states, marked the end of the Spring and Autumn period and the beginning of the Warring States period.

Warring States period

The Warring States period was an era in ancient Chinese history following the Spring and Autumn period, concluding with the Qin wars of conquest. Those wars resulted in the annexation of all other contender states, completed with the Qin state's victory in 221 BCE. That meant that the Qin state became the first unified Chinese empire, known as the Qin dynasty.

Notes

References

Citations

Sources

* 許倬雲 著，鄒水傑 譯：《中國古代社會史論——春秋戰國時期的社會流動》（桂林：廣西師範大學出版社，2006）.
* Yang Hsien-yi and Gladys Yang (1974), ''Records of the Historians''. Hong Kong: Commercial Press.
** Reprinted by University Press of the Pacific, 2002. Contains biographies of Confucius and Laozi. .

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