The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to Earth science: Earth-crust-cutaway-english

Earth science Earth science or geoscience includes all fields of natural science related to the planet Earth. This is a branch of science dealing with the physical, chemical, and biological complex constitutions and synergistic linkages of Earth's four spheres ...

– all-embracing term for the

science Science is a systematic discipline that builds and organises knowledge in the form of testable hypotheses and predictions about the universe. Modern science is typically divided into twoor threemajor branches: the natural sciences, which stu ...

s related to the

planet A planet is a large, Hydrostatic equilibrium, rounded Astronomical object, astronomical body that is generally required to be in orbit around a star, stellar remnant, or brown dwarf, and is not one itself. The Solar System has eight planets b ...

Earth Earth is the third planet from the Sun and the only astronomical object known to Planetary habitability, harbor life. This is enabled by Earth being an ocean world, the only one in the Solar System sustaining liquid surface water. Almost all ...

. It is also known as geoscience, the geosciences or the Earthquake sciences, and is arguably a special case in

planetary science Planetary science (or more rarely, planetology) is the scientific study of planets (including Earth), celestial bodies (such as moons, asteroids, comets) and planetary systems (in particular those of the Solar System) and the processes of ...

, the Earth being the only known

life Life, also known as biota, refers to matter that has biological processes, such as Cell signaling, signaling and self-sustaining processes. It is defined descriptively by the capacity for homeostasis, Structure#Biological, organisation, met ...

-bearing planet. Earth science is a branch of the

physical science Physical science is a branch of natural science that studies non-living systems, in contrast to life science. It in turn has many branches, each referred to as a "physical science", together is called the "physical sciences". Definition ...

s which is a part of the

natural science Natural science or empirical science is one of the branches of science concerned with the description, understanding and prediction of natural phenomena, based on empirical evidence from observation and experimentation. Mechanisms such as peer ...

s. It in turn has many branches.

Earth's spheres

Ecosphere – there are many subsystems that make up the

natural environment The natural environment or natural world encompasses all life, biotic and abiotic component, abiotic things occurring nature, naturally, meaning in this case not artificiality, artificial. The term is most often applied to Earth or some parts ...

(the planetary ecosystem or "ecosphere") of the Earth. Many of the subsystems are characterized as "spheres", coinciding with the shape of the planet. The four spheres (for which most of the other spheres are a subtype of) are the

atmosphere An atmosphere () is a layer of gases that envelop an astronomical object, held in place by the gravity of the object. A planet retains an atmosphere when the gravity is great and the temperature of the atmosphere is low. A stellar atmosph ...

, the

biosphere The biosphere (), also called the ecosphere (), is the worldwide sum of all ecosystems. It can also be termed the zone of life on the Earth. The biosphere (which is technically a spherical shell) is virtually a closed system with regard to mat ...

, the

hydrosphere The hydrosphere () is the combined mass of water found on, under, and above the Planetary surface, surface of a planet, minor planet, or natural satellite. Although Earth's hydrosphere has been around for about 4 billion years, it continues to ch ...

and the

geosphere There are several conflicting usages of geosphere, variously defined. In Aristotelian physics, the term was applied to four spherical ''natural places'', concentrically nested around the center of the Earth, as described in the lectures '' Ph ...

. Earth's ecosphere lies it self within the

heliosphere The heliosphere is the magnetosphere, astrosphere, and outermost atmospheric layer of the Sun. It takes the shape of a vast, tailed bubble-like region of space. In plasma physics terms, it is the cavity formed by the Sun in the surrounding ...

(the

Sun The Sun is the star at the centre of the Solar System. It is a massive, nearly perfect sphere of hot plasma, heated to incandescence by nuclear fusion reactions in its core, radiating the energy from its surface mainly as visible light a ...

's astrosphere). Listed roughly from outermost to innermost the named spheres of the Earth are: *

Magnetosphere In astronomy and planetary science, a magnetosphere is a region of space surrounding an astronomical object in which charged particles are affected by that object's magnetic field. It is created by a celestial body with an active interior Dynamo ...

– The region around an astronomical object in which charged particles are affected by its magnetic field *

Atmosphere An atmosphere () is a layer of gases that envelop an astronomical object, held in place by the gravity of the object. A planet retains an atmosphere when the gravity is great and the temperature of the atmosphere is low. A stellar atmosph ...

, the gases that surround the Earth (its air) **By altitude ***

Exosphere The exosphere is a thin, atmosphere-like volume surrounding a planet or natural satellite where molecules are gravitationally bound to that body, but where the density is so low that the molecules are essentially collision-less. In the case of ...

– The outermost layer of an atmosphere *** Exobase – The lower boundary of the exosphere ***

Thermopause The thermopause is the atmospheric boundary of Earth's energy system, located at the top of the thermosphere. The temperature of the thermopause could range from nearly absolute zero to . Below this, the atmosphere is defined to be active on the ...

– The upper boundary of the thermosphere ***

Thermosphere The thermosphere is the layer in the Earth's atmosphere directly above the mesosphere and below the exosphere. Within this layer of the atmosphere, ultraviolet radiation causes photoionization/photodissociation of molecules, creating ions; the ...

– The layer of the atmosphere above the mesosphere and below the exosphere *** Mesopause – The temperature minimum at the boundary between the mesosphere and the thermosphere ***

Mesosphere The mesosphere (; ) is the third layer of the atmosphere, directly above the stratosphere and directly below the thermosphere. In the mesosphere, temperature decreases as altitude increases. This characteristic is used to define limits: it be ...

– The layer of the atmosphere directly above the stratosphere and below the thermosphere *** Stratopause – The upper boundary of the stratosphere ***

Stratosphere The stratosphere () is the second-lowest layer of the atmosphere of Earth, located above the troposphere and below the mesosphere. The stratosphere is composed of stratified temperature zones, with the warmer layers of air located higher ...

– The layer of the atmosphere above the troposphere ****

Ozone layer The ozone layer or ozone shield is a region of Earth's stratosphere that absorption (electromagnetic radiation), absorbs most of the Sun's ultraviolet radiation. It contains a high concentration of ozone (O3) in relation to other parts of the a ...

– The region of Earth's stratosphere that absorbs most of the Sun's UV radiation ***

Tropopause The tropopause is the atmospheric boundary that demarcates the lowest two layers of the atmosphere of Earth – the troposphere and stratosphere – which occurs approximately above the equatorial regions, and approximately above the polar regi ...

– The boundary of the atmosphere between the troposphere and stratosphere ***

Troposphere The troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere of Earth. It contains 80% of the total mass of the Atmosphere, planetary atmosphere and 99% of the total mass of water vapor and aerosols, and is where most weather phenomena occur. From the ...

– The lowest layer of the atmosphere ***

Planetary boundary layer In meteorology, the planetary boundary layer (PBL), also known as the atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) or peplosphere, is the lowest part of the atmosphere and its behaviour is directly influenced by its contact with a planetary surface. On Ea ...

– The lowest part of the atmosphere, directly influenced by contact with the planetary surface **By air turbulence *** Heterosphere – Upper parts of the atmosphere in which the component gases are not well mixed *** Turbopause – The altitude in the Earth's atmosphere below which turbulent mixing dominates *** Homosphere – Lower parts of the atmosphere in which the component gases are well mixed **Other ***

Ionosphere The ionosphere () is the ionized part of the upper atmosphere of Earth, from about to above sea level, a region that includes the thermosphere and parts of the mesosphere and exosphere. The ionosphere is ionized by solar radiation. It plays ...

– The ionized part of Earth's upper atmosphere *

Biosphere The biosphere (), also called the ecosphere (), is the worldwide sum of all ecosystems. It can also be termed the zone of life on the Earth. The biosphere (which is technically a spherical shell) is virtually a closed system with regard to mat ...

– The global sum of all ecosystems on Earth **

Anthroposphere The anthroposphere refers to that part of the Earth system that is made or modified by humans for use in human activities and human habitats. The term has been suggested for inclusion as one of the Earth's spheres, while others use the related te ...

– The part of the environment that is made or modified by humans for use in human activities and human habitat ***

Noosphere The noosphere (alternate spelling noösphere) is a philosophical concept developed and popularized by the biogeochemist Vladimir Vernadsky and philosopher and Jesuit priest Pierre Teilhard de Chardin. Vernadsky defined the noosphere as the new s ...

(rare) – The sphere of human thought *

Hydrosphere The hydrosphere () is the combined mass of water found on, under, and above the Planetary surface, surface of a planet, minor planet, or natural satellite. Although Earth's hydrosphere has been around for about 4 billion years, it continues to ch ...

– The combined mass of water found on, under, and above the surface of a planet, minor planet or natural satellite **

Cryosphere The cryosphere is an umbrella term for those portions of Earth's surface where water is in solid form. This includes sea ice, ice on lakes or rivers, snow, glaciers, ice caps, ice sheets, and frozen ground (which includes permafrost). Thus, there ...

– Those portions of Earth's surface where water is in solid form *

Geosphere There are several conflicting usages of geosphere, variously defined. In Aristotelian physics, the term was applied to four spherical ''natural places'', concentrically nested around the center of the Earth, as described in the lectures '' Ph ...

Solid Earth Solid earth refers to "the earth beneath our feet" or '' terra firma'', the planet's solid surface and its interior. It excludes the Earth's fluid envelopes, the atmosphere and hydrosphere (but includes the ocean basin), as well as the biosphere ...

– (Also sometimes a collective name for the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the cryosphere, and the atmosphere) The union of all solid parts of Earth and the Inner of Earth. **

Pedosphere The pedosphere () is the Earth's crust, outermost layer of the Earth that is composed of soil and subject to soil formation processes. It exists at the interface of the lithosphere, Atmosphere of Earth, atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere. The ...

– The outermost layer of the Earth that is composed of soil and subject to

soil formation Soil formation, also known as pedogenesis, is the process of soil genesis as regulated by the effects of place, environment, and history. Biogeochemical processes act to both create and destroy order ( anisotropy) within soils. These alteration ...

processes **Outer layers ***By composition ****

Crust (geology) In geology, the crust is the outermost solid shell of a planet, dwarf planet, or natural satellite. It is usually distinguished from the underlying mantle by its chemical makeup; however, in the case of icy satellites, it may be defined based o ...

– The outermost solid shell of a rocky planet, dwarf planet, or natural satellite. ****

Moho Discontinuity Moho may refer to: Birds * Moho (genus), ''Moho'' (genus), an extinct genus of birds in the family Mohoidae * The Hawaiian name of the Hawaiian rail, an extinct species * The Māori name of the North Island takahē, an extinct species * A local na ...

– The line between the crust and the Earth's mantle. ****

Earth's mantle Earth's mantle is a layer of silicate mineral, silicate rock between the Earth's crust, crust and the Earth's outer core, outer core. It has a mass of and makes up 67% of the mass of Earth. It has a thickness of making up about 46% of Earth's ...

– The part of the interior of the planet Earth between the crust and the core. ***By diffusion of seismic waves ****

Lithosphere A lithosphere () is the rigid, outermost rocky shell of a terrestrial planet or natural satellite. On Earth, it is composed of the crust and the lithospheric mantle, the topmost portion of the upper mantle that behaves elastically on time ...

– The rigid, outermost shell of a terrestrial-type planet or natural satellite that is defined by its rigid mechanical properties. ****

Asthenosphere The asthenosphere () is the mechanically weak and ductile region of the upper mantle of Earth. It lies below the lithosphere, at a depth between c. below the surface, and extends as deep as . However, the lower boundary of the asthenosphere i ...

– The highly viscous, mechanically weak and ductile region of the Earth's

upper mantle The upper mantle of Earth is a very thick layer of rock inside the planet, which begins just beneath the crust (geology), crust (at about under the oceans and about under the continents) and ends at the top of the lower mantle (Earth), lower man ...

**** Mesozone – The part of the Earth's mantle below the lithosphere and the asthenosphere, but above the outer core. **

Gutenberg discontinuity The Gutenberg discontinuity occurs within Earth's interior at a depth of about below the surface, where there is an abrupt change in the seismic waves (generated by earthquakes or explosions) that travel through Earth. At this depth, primary sei ...

– The line between the mantle and the Earth's core. ** Earth's core – The inner part of the planet, formed by differential buoyancy of the component materials causing the denser materials to accumulate nearer to the centre. ***

Outer core Earth's outer core is a fluid layer about thick, composed of mostly iron and nickel that lies above Earth's solid Earth's inner core, inner core and below its Earth's mantle, mantle. The outer core begins approximately beneath Earth's surface ...

– A fluid layer composed of mostly iron and nickel between Earth's solid inner core and its mantle. *** Lehmann Discontinuity – The line between the inner core and the outer core. ***

Inner core Earth's inner core is the innermost internal structure of Earth, geologic layer of the planet Earth. It is primarily a solid ball (mathematics), ball with a radius of about , which is about 20% of Earth's radius or 70% of the Moon's radius. T ...

– The innermost part of the Earth, a solid ball of iron-nickel alloy.

Branches of Earth science

Atmospheric science

Atmospheric sciences Atmospheric science is the study of the Earth's atmosphere and its various inner-working physical processes. Meteorology includes atmospheric chemistry and atmospheric physics with a major focus on weather forecasting. Climatology is the study ...

– The study of the atmosphere, its processes, and interactions with other systems *

Climatology Climatology (from Greek , ''klima'', "slope"; and , '' -logia'') or climate science is the scientific study of Earth's climate, typically defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of at least 30 years. Climate concerns the atmospher ...

– The scientific study of climate, defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of time *

Meteorology Meteorology is the scientific study of the Earth's atmosphere and short-term atmospheric phenomena (i.e. weather), with a focus on weather forecasting. It has applications in the military, aviation, energy production, transport, agricultur ...

– Interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere focusing on weather forecasting. *

Paleoclimatology Paleoclimatology ( British spelling, palaeoclimatology) is the scientific study of climates predating the invention of meteorological instruments, when no direct measurement data were available. As instrumental records only span a tiny part of ...

– The study of changes in climate taken on the scale of the entire history of Earth *

Atmospheric chemistry Atmospheric chemistry is a branch of atmospheric science that studies the chemistry of the Earth's atmosphere and that of other planets. This multidisciplinary approach of research draws on environmental chemistry, physics, meteorology, comput ...

– The branch of atmospheric science in which the chemistry of the atmosphere is studied *

Atmospheric physics Within the atmospheric sciences, atmospheric physics is the application of physics to the study of the atmosphere. Atmospheric physicists attempt to model Earth's atmosphere and the atmospheres of the other planets using fluid flow equations, rad ...

– The application of physics to the study of the atmosphere * Paleotempestology – The study of past tropical cyclone activity using geological proxies and historical documents

Geology

Geology Geology (). is a branch of natural science concerned with the Earth and other astronomical objects, the rocks of which they are composed, and the processes by which they change over time. Modern geology significantly overlaps all other Earth ...

– The study of the composition, structure, physical properties, and history of Earth's components, and the processes by which they are shaped. **

Economic geology Economic geology is concerned with earth materials that can be used for economic and industrial purposes. These materials include precious and base metals, nonmetallic minerals and dimension stone, construction-grade stone. Economic geology is a ...

– Science concerned with earth materials of economic value **

Engineering geology Engineering geology is the application of geology to engineering study for the purpose of assuring that the geological factors regarding the location, design, construction, operation and maintenance of engineering works are recognized and accou ...

– The application of the geology to engineering practice. ** Environmental geology – Science of the practical application of geology in environmental problems. **

Quaternary geology Quaternary geology is the branch of geology that study developments from 2.58 million years ago to the present. In particular, Quaternary geology study the process and deposits that developed during the Quaternary, a period characterized by Glacial ...

– The branch of geology that studies developments more recent than 2.6 million years ago **

Planetary geology Planetary geology, alternatively known as astrogeology or exogeology, is a planetary science discipline concerned with the geology of celestial bodies such as planets and their moons, asteroids, comets, and meteorites. Although the geo- prefix t ...

– The geology of astronomical objects apparently in orbit around stellar objects **

Petroleum geology Petroleum geology is the study of the origins, occurrence, movement, accumulation, and exploration of hydrocarbon fuels. It refers to the specific set of geological disciplines that are applied to the search for hydrocarbons ( oil exploration). ...

– The study of the origin, occurrence, movement, accumulation, and exploration of hydrocarbon fuels **

Historical geology Historical geology or palaeogeology is a discipline that uses the principles and methods of geology to reconstruct the geological history of Earth. Historical geology examines the vastness of geologic time, measured in billions of years, and inv ...

– The study of the geological history of Earth **

Hydrogeology Hydrogeology (''hydro-'' meaning water, and ''-geology'' meaning the study of the Earth) is the area of geology that deals with the distribution and movement of groundwater in the soil and rock (geology), rocks of the Earth's crust (ge ...

– The study of the distribution and movement of groundwater **

Structural geology Structural geology is the study of the three-dimensional distribution of rock units with respect to their deformational histories. The primary goal of structural geology is to use measurements of present-day rock geometries to uncover informati ...

– The science of the description and interpretation of deformation in the Earth's crust independent of extent *

Geochemistry Geochemistry is the science that uses the tools and principles of chemistry to explain the mechanisms behind major geological systems such as the Earth's crust and its oceans. The realm of geochemistry extends beyond the Earth, encompassing the e ...

– Science that applies chemistry to analyse geological systems *

Geochronology Geochronology is the science of Chronological dating, determining the age of rock (geology), rocks, fossils, and sediments using signatures inherent in the rocks themselves. Absolute geochronology can be accomplished through radioactive isotopes, ...

– Science of determining the age of rocks, sediments and fossils *

Geodesy Geodesy or geodetics is the science of measuring and representing the Figure of the Earth, geometry, Gravity of Earth, gravity, and Earth's rotation, spatial orientation of the Earth in Relative change, temporally varying Three-dimensional spac ...

– The science of the geometric shape, orientation in space, and gravitational field of the Earth * Geomagnetics – Study of the Earth's magnetic field * Geomicrobiology – Science of the interactions between microbiology and geology *

Geomorphology Geomorphology () is the scientific study of the origin and evolution of topographic and bathymetric features generated by physical, chemical or biological processes operating at or near Earth's surface. Geomorphologists seek to understand wh ...

– The scientific study of landforms and the processes that shape them *

Glaciology Glaciology (; ) is the scientific study of glaciers, or, more generally, ice and natural phenomena that involve ice. Glaciology is an interdisciplinary Earth science that integrates geophysics, geology, physical geography, geomorphology, clim ...

– Scientific study of ice and natural phenomena involving ice *

Geophysics Geophysics () is a subject of natural science concerned with the physical processes and Physical property, properties of Earth and its surrounding space environment, and the use of quantitative methods for their analysis. Geophysicists conduct i ...

– The physics of the Earth and its environment in space, and the study of the Earth using quantitative physical methods *

Micropaleontology Micropaleontology (American spelling; spelled micropalaeontology in European usage) is the branch of paleontology (palaeontology) that studies microfossils, or fossils that require the use of a microscope to see the organism, its morphology and ...

– The branch of paleontology that studies microfossils *

Mineralogy Mineralogy is a subject of geology specializing in the scientific study of the chemistry, crystal structure, and physical (including optical mineralogy, optical) properties of minerals and mineralized artifact (archaeology), artifacts. Specific s ...

– Scientific study of minerals and mineralised artifacts **

Gemology Gemology or gemmology is the science dealing with natural and artificial gemstone materials. It is a specific interdisciplinary branch of mineralogy. Some jewellery, jewelers (and many non-jewelers) are academically trained gemologists and are qua ...

– Science dealing with natural and artificial gemstone materials **

Mineral physics Mineral physics is the science of materials that compose the interior of planets, particularly the Earth. It overlaps with petrophysics, which focuses on whole-rock properties. It provides information that allows interpretation of surface measure ...

– The science of materials that compose the interior of planets *

Paleontology Paleontology, also spelled as palaeontology or palæontology, is the scientific study of the life of the past, mainly but not exclusively through the study of fossils. Paleontologists use fossils as a means to classify organisms, measure ge ...

– Scientific study of prehistoric life *

Palynology Palynology is the study of microorganisms and microscopic fragments of mega-organisms that are composed of acid-resistant organic material and occur in sediments, sedimentary rocks, and even some metasedimentary rocks. Palynomorphs are the mic ...

– The study of dust *

Petrology Petrology () is the branch of geology that studies rocks, their mineralogy, composition, texture, structure and the conditions under which they form. Petrology has three subdivisions: igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary petrology. Igneous ...

– The branch of geology that studies the origin, composition, distribution and structure of rocks * Physical geodesy – The study of the physical properties of the Earth's gravity field *

Sedimentology Sedimentology encompasses the study of modern sediments such as sand, silt, and clay, and the processes that result in their formation (erosion and weathering), transport, deposition and diagenesis. Sedimentologists apply their understanding of m ...

– The study of natural sediments and of the processes by which they are formed *

Seismology Seismology (; from Ancient Greek σεισμός (''seismós'') meaning "earthquake" and -λογία (''-logía'') meaning "study of") is the scientific study of earthquakes (or generally, quakes) and the generation and propagation of elastic ...

– The scientific study of earthquakes and propagation of elastic waves through a planet ** Paleoseismology – The study of earthquakes that happened in the past *

Stratigraphy Stratigraphy is a branch of geology concerned with the study of rock layers (strata) and layering (stratification). It is primarily used in the study of sedimentary and layered volcanic rocks. Stratigraphy has three related subfields: lithost ...

– The study of rock layers and their formation *

Volcanology Volcanology (also spelled vulcanology) is the study of volcanoes, lava, magma and related geology, geological, geophysical and geochemistry, geochemical phenomena (volcanism). The term ''volcanology'' is derived from the Latin language, Latin ...

– The study of volcanoes, lava, magma and associated phenomena

Geography

Geography Geography (from Ancient Greek ; combining 'Earth' and 'write', literally 'Earth writing') is the study of the lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena of Earth. Geography is an all-encompassing discipline that seeks an understanding o ...

– The science that studies the terrestrial surface, the societies that inhabit it and the territories, landscapes, places or regions that form it. *

Physical geography Physical geography (also known as physiography) is one of the three main branches of geography. Physical geography is the branch of natural science which deals with the processes and patterns in the natural environment such as the atmosphere, h ...

– The branch of natural science which deals with the study of processes and patterns in the natural environment such as the atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and geosphere, as opposed to the cultural or built environment, the domain of human geography *

Human geography Human geography or anthropogeography is the branch of geography which studies spatial relationships between human communities, cultures, economies, and their interactions with the environment, examples of which include urban sprawl and urban ...

– The study of cultures, communities and activities of peoples of the world *

Cartography Cartography (; from , 'papyrus, sheet of paper, map'; and , 'write') is the study and practice of making and using maps. Combining science, aesthetics and technique, cartography builds on the premise that reality (or an imagined reality) can ...

Topography Topography is the study of the forms and features of land surfaces. The topography of an area may refer to the landforms and features themselves, or a description or depiction in maps. Topography is a field of geoscience and planetary sci ...

Geostatistics Geostatistics is a branch of statistics focusing on spatial or spatiotemporal datasets. Developed originally to predict probability distributions of ore grades for mining operations, it is currently applied in diverse disciplines including pet ...

– A branch of statistics focusing on spatial data sets *

Environmental chemistry Environmental chemistry is the scientific study of the chemical and biochemical phenomena that occur in natural places. It should not be confused with green chemistry, which seeks to reduce potential pollution at its source. It can be defined as ...

– The scientific study of the chemical and biochemical phenomena that occur in natural places *

Environmental soil science Environmental soil science is the study of the interaction of humans with the pedosphere as well as critical aspects of the biosphere, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, and the atmosphere. Environmental soil science addresses both the fundamental a ...

– The study of the interaction of humans with the pedosphere as well as critical aspects of the biosphere, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, and the atmosphere. *

Geographic information science Geographic information science (GIScience, GISc) or geoinformation science is a scientific discipline at the crossroads of computational science, social science, and natural science that studies geographic information, including how it represe ...

– Scientific study of

geographic data and information Geographic data and information is defined in the ISO/TC 211 series of standards as data and information having an implicit or explicit association with a location relative to Earth (a geographic location or geographic position). It is also ca ...

Edaphology Edaphology (from Greek , ''edaphos'' 'ground' + , ''-logia'') is concerned with the influence of soils on living beings, particularly plants. It is one of two main divisions of soil science, the other being pedology. Edaphology includes the stud ...

– The science concerned with the influence of soils on living things. *

Pedology Pedology (from Greek: πέδον, ''pedon'', "soil"; and λόγος, ''logos'', "study") is a discipline within soil science which focuses on understanding and characterizing soil formation, evolution, and the theoretical frameworks for modelin ...

– The study of soils in their natural environment * Spatial decision support systems – Computerised aid to land use decisions * Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) – Various satellite navigation systems *

Hydrology Hydrology () is the scientific study of the movement, distribution, and management of water on Earth and other planets, including the water cycle, water resources, and drainage basin sustainability. A practitioner of hydrology is called a hydro ...

– The science of applying engineering techniques to the properties of the Earth's water, especially its movement in relation to land. *

Satellite navigation A satellite navigation or satnav system is a system that uses satellites to provide autonomous geopositioning. A satellite navigation system with global coverage is termed global navigation satellite system (GNSS). , four global systems are ope ...

– Any system that uses satellite radio signals to provide. autonomous geo-spatial positioning *

Remote sensing Remote sensing is the acquisition of information about an physical object, object or phenomenon without making physical contact with the object, in contrast to in situ or on-site observation. The term is applied especially to acquiring inform ...

– Acquisition of information at a significant distance from the subject. *

Photogrammetry Photogrammetry is the science and technology of obtaining reliable information about physical objects and the environment through the process of recording, measuring and interpreting photographic images and patterns of electromagnetic radiant ima ...

– The science of making measurements using photography.

Oceanography

Oceanography Oceanography (), also known as oceanology, sea science, ocean science, and marine science, is the scientific study of the ocean, including its physics, chemistry, biology, and geology. It is an Earth science, which covers a wide range of to ...

– The study of the physical and biological aspects of the ocean *

Biological oceanography Biological oceanography is the study of how organisms affect and are affected by the physics, chemistry, and geology of the oceanographic system. Biological oceanography may also be referred to as ocean ecology, in which the root word of ecology ...

– The study of how organisms affect and are affected by the physics, chemistry, and geology of the oceanographic system. *

Physical oceanography Physical oceanography is the study of physical conditions and physical processes within the ocean, especially the motions and physical properties of ocean waters. Physical oceanography is one of several sub-domains into which oceanography is div ...

– The study of physical conditions and physical processes within the ocean *

Chemical oceanography Marine chemistry, also known as ocean chemistry or chemical oceanography, is the study of the chemical composition and processes of the world’s oceans, including the interactions between seawater, the atmosphere, the seafloor, and marine organ ...

– The study of ocean chemistry *

Paleoceanography Paleoceanography is the study of the history of the oceans in the geologic past with regard to circulation, chemistry, biology, geology and patterns of sedimentation and biological productivity. Paleoceanographic studies using environment model ...

– The study of the history of the oceans in the geologic past *

Limnology Limnology ( ; ) is the study of inland aquatic ecosystems. It includes aspects of the biological, chemical, physical, and geological characteristics of fresh and saline, natural and man-made bodies of water. This includes the study of lakes, ...

– The science of inland aquatic ecosystems *

Marine geology Marine geology or geological oceanography is the study of the history and structure of the ocean floor. It involves geophysical, Geochemistry, geochemical, Sedimentology, sedimentological and paleontological investigations of the ocean floor and ...

– The study of the history and structure of the ocean floor

Planetary science

Planetary science Planetary science (or more rarely, planetology) is the scientific study of planets (including Earth), celestial bodies (such as moons, asteroids, comets) and planetary systems (in particular those of the Solar System) and the processes of ...

– The study of

s (including

), moons, and

planetary system A planetary system is a set of gravity, gravitationally bound non-stellar Astronomical object, bodies in or out of orbit around a star or star system. Generally speaking, systems with one or more planets constitute a planetary system, although ...

s (in particular those of the

Solar System The Solar SystemCapitalization of the name varies. The International Astronomical Union, the authoritative body regarding astronomical nomenclature, specifies capitalizing the names of all individual astronomical objects but uses mixed "Sola ...

) and the processes that form them. *

– study of the geology of astronomical objects apparently in orbit around stellar objects *

Selenography Selenography is the study of the surface and physical features of the Moon (also known as geography of the Moon, or selenodesy). Like geography and areography, selenography is a subdiscipline within the field of planetary science. Historically, ...

– study of the surface and physical features of the Moon * Theoretical planetology – the theoretical study of the internal structure of

s by making assumptions about their

chemical A chemical substance is a unique form of matter with constant chemical composition and characteristic properties. Chemical substances may take the form of a single element or chemical compounds. If two or more chemical substances can be combin ...

composition and the state of their materials, then calculating the radial distribution of various properties such as

temperature Temperature is a physical quantity that quantitatively expresses the attribute of hotness or coldness. Temperature is measurement, measured with a thermometer. It reflects the average kinetic energy of the vibrating and colliding atoms making ...

pressure Pressure (symbol: ''p'' or ''P'') is the force applied perpendicular to the surface of an object per unit area over which that force is distributed. Gauge pressure (also spelled ''gage'' pressure)The preferred spelling varies by country and eve ...

, or

density Density (volumetric mass density or specific mass) is the ratio of a substance's mass to its volume. The symbol most often used for density is ''ρ'' (the lower case Greek letter rho), although the Latin letter ''D'' (or ''d'') can also be u ...

of material across the planet's internals.

History of Earth science

History of Earth science – history of the all-embracing sciences related to Earth. Earth science and all of its branches are branches of physical science. * History of atmospheric sciences – history of the umbrella study of the atmosphere, its processes, the effects other systems have on the atmosphere, and the effects of the atmosphere on these other systems. *** History of atmospheric chemistry *

History of biogeography Biogeography is the study of the species distribution, distribution of species and ecosystems in geography, geographic space and through evolutionary history of life, geological time. Organisms and biological community (ecology), communities o ...

– history of the study of the distribution of species (biology), organisms, and ecosystems in geographic space and through geological time. *

History of cartography Maps have been one of the most important human inventions, allowing humans to explain and navigate their way. When and how the earliest maps were made is unclear, but maps of local terrain are believed to have been independently invented by man ...

– history of the study and practice of making maps or globes. * History of climatology – history of the study of climate, scientifically defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of time * History of coastal geography – history of the study of the dynamic interface between the ocean and the land, incorporating both the physical geography (i.e. coastal geomorphology, geology, and oceanography) and the human geography (sociology and history) of the coast. * History of environmental science – history of an integrated, quantitative, and interdisciplinary approach to the study of environmental systems. ** History of ecology – history of the scientific study of the distribution and abundance of living organisms and how they are affected by interactions between the organisms and their environment. *** History of Freshwater biology – history of the scientific biological study of freshwater ecosystems and is a branch of limnology ***

History of marine biology Marine biology is a hybrid subject that combines aspects of organismal function, ecological interaction and the study of marine biodiversity. The earliest studies of marine biology trace back to the Phoenicians and the Greeks who are known as th ...

– history of the scientific study of organisms in the ocean or other marine or brackish bodies of water *** History of parasitology – The history of parasitology studies parasites, their hosts, and their relationships. *** History of population dynamics – history of population dynamics is the branch of life sciences that studies short-term and long-term changes in the size and age composition of populations and the biological and environmental processes influencing those changes. **History of environmental chemistry – The history of environmental chemistry is the scientific study of the chemical and biochemical phenomena that occur in natural places. **History of environmental soil science – The history of environmental soil science is the study of the interaction of humans with the pedosphere as well as critical aspects of the biosphere, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, and the atmosphere. **History of environmental geology – The history of environmental geology, like hydrogeology, is an applied science concerned with the practical application of the principles of geology in solving environmental problems. ** History of toxicology – history of the branch of biology, chemistry, and medicine concerned with the study of the adverse effects of chemicals on living organisms. * History of geodesy – history of the scientific discipline that deals with the measurement and representation of the Earth, including its gravitational field, in a three-dimensional time-varying space *

History of geography The History of geography includes many histories of geography which have differed over time and between different cultural and political groups. In more recent developments, geography has become a distinct academic discipline. 'Geography' derive ...

– history of the science that studies the lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena of Earth * History of geoinformatics – the history of the science and the technology used to develop and use information science infrastructure to address the problems of geography, geosciences, and related branches of engineering. *

History of geology The history of geology is concerned with the development of the natural science of geology. Geology is the scientific study of the origin, history, and structure of the Earth. Antiquity In the year 540 BC, Xenophanes described fossil fish a ...

– history of studying Earth, with the general exclusion of present-day life, flow within the ocean, and the atmosphere. ** History of planetary geology – the history of the planetary science discipline concerned with the geology of the celestial bodies, such as the planets and their moons, asteroids, comets, and meteorites. * History of geomorphology – history of the scientific study of landforms and the processes that shape them * History of geostatistics – history of the branch of statistics focusing on spatial or spatiotemporal datasets * History of geophysics – history of the physics of the Earth and its environment in space; also the study of the Earth using quantitative physical methods. * History of glaciology – history of the study of glaciers, or more generally, ice, and natural phenomena that involve ice. * History of hydrology – history of studying water movement, distribution, and quality on Earth and other planets, including the hydrologic cycle, water resources, and environmental watershed sustainability. * History of hydrogeology – history of the area of geology that deals with the distribution and movement of groundwater in the soil and rocks of the Earth's crust (commonly in aquifers). * History of mineralogy – history of the study of chemistry, crystal structure, and physical (including optical) properties of minerals. * History of meteorology – history of the interdisciplinary scientific study of the atmosphere, which explains and forecasts weather events. * History of oceanography – history of the branch of Earth science that studies the ocean * History of paleoclimatology – history of the study of changes in climate taken on the scale of the entire history of Earth * History of paleontology – history of the study of prehistoric life * History of petrology – history of the geology branch that studies rocks' origin, composition, distribution, and structure. * History of limnology – history of the study of inland waters * History of seismology – history of the scientific study of earthquakes and the propagation of elastic waves through the Earth or other planet-like bodies * History of soil science – history of the study of soil as a natural resource on the surface of the Earth, including soil formation, classification, and mapping; physical, chemical, biological, and fertility properties of soils; and these properties concerning the use and management of soils. * History of topography – history of the study of surface shape and features of the Earth and other observable astronomical objects, including planets, moons, and asteroids. * History of volcanology – history of studying volcanoes, lava, magma, and related geological, geophysical and geochemical phenomena.

Earth science programs

NASA Earth Science NASA Earth Science, formerly called NASA Earth Science Enterprise (ESE) and Mission To Planet Earth (MTPE), is a NASA research program "to develop a scientific understanding of the Earth system and its response to natural and human-induced chan ...

Earth science organizations

List of geoscience organizations This is a list of geoscience organizations, including such fields of geosciences as geology, geophysics, hydrology, oceanography, petrophysics, and related fields. Intercontinental organizations * Anthropocene Working Group * * Association ...

Earth science journals

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Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences ''Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences'' is an annual peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Annual Reviews, which broadly covers Earth and planetary sciences, including geology, atmospheric sciences, climate, geophysics, enviro ...

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Earth-Science Reviews ''Earth-Science Reviews'' is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Elsevier. It covers all aspects of Earth sciences. The editors-in-chief for this journal are A. Chin, C. Doglioni, J.L. Florsheim, M.F.J. Flower, G.R. Foulger, A ...

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Nature Geoscience ''Nature Geoscience'' is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by the Nature Publishing Group. The Chief Editor is Tamara Goldin, who took over from Heike Langenberg in February 2020. It was established in January 2008. Scope The ...

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Radiocarbon Carbon-14, C-14, C or radiocarbon, is a radioactive isotope of carbon with an atomic nucleus containing 6 protons and 8 neutrons. Its presence in organic matter is the basis of the radiocarbon dating method pioneered by Willard Libby and coll ...

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Reviews of Geophysics ''Reviews of Geophysics'' is a quarterly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Wiley-Blackwell on behalf of the American Geophysical Union. The current editor-in-chief is Fabio Florindo (National Institute of Geophysics and Volcanology– ...

People influential in Earth science

James Hutton James Hutton (; 3 June Old Style and New Style dates, O.S. 1726 – 26 March 1797) was a Scottish geologist, Agricultural science, agriculturalist, chemist, chemical manufacturer, Natural history, naturalist and physician. Often referred to a ...

* Alfred Wegener * Isabelle Daniel *

Robert Hazen Robert Miller Hazen (born November 1, 1948) is an American mineralogist and astrobiologist. He is a research scientist at the Carnegie Institution of Washington's Geophysical Laboratory and Clarence Robinson Professor of Earth Science at George ...

* Naomi Oreskes * Michael E. Mann

References

External links

Earth Science Picture of the Day
a service of Universities Space Research Association, sponsored by

NASA Goddard Space Flight Center The Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) is a major NASA space research laboratory located approximately northeast of Washington, D.C., in Greenbelt, Maryland, United States. Established on May 1, 1959, as NASA's first space flight center, GSFC ...

Geoethics in Planetary and Space ExplorationNational Earth Science Teachers Association
{{DEFAULTSORT:Earth Science

Earth's spheres

Branches of Earth science

Atmospheric science

Geology

Geography

Oceanography

Planetary science

History of Earth science

Earth science programs

Earth science organizations

Earth science journals

People influential in Earth science

See also

References

External links