Dutch–Ahanta War
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The Dutch–Ahanta War was a conflict between the
Netherlands , Terminology of the Low Countries, informally Holland, is a country in Northwestern Europe, with Caribbean Netherlands, overseas territories in the Caribbean. It is the largest of the four constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Nether ...
and the
Ahanta The Ahanta/Ayinda are Akan people who live to the north and east of the Nzema. The Ahanta land has been historically known as one of the richest areas on the coast of what is now Ghana. The Ahanta land spans from Beposo to Ankobra in what is no ...
between 1837 and 1839. Beginning with a mere economic dispute between the Ahanta and the Dutch, who were based at the
Dutch Gold Coast The Dutch Gold Coast or Dutch Guinea, officially Dutch possessions on the Coast of Guinea (Dutch language, Dutch: ''Nederlandse Bezittingen ter Kuste van Guinea'') was a portion of contemporary Ghana that was gradually colonized by the Dutch (et ...
, the conflict ended with the hanging of Ahanta king
Badu Bonsu II Badu Bonsu II was a leader of the Ahanta who originally migrated south and separated from the Fante people upon reaching the Pra River and a Ghanaian king who was executed in 1838 by the Dutch, who, at the time, were in control of the Dutch Gold ...
and the reorganization of the Ahanta state, establishing a Dutch
protectorate A protectorate, in the context of international relations, is a State (polity), state that is under protection by another state for defence against aggression and other violations of law. It is a dependent territory that enjoys autonomy over ...
over the Ahanta.


Background

From the time the European powers settled trading posts on the Gold Coast until the second half of the nineteenth century, they displayed little interest in establishing territorial control beyond the forts they built in agreement with the local population. The Dutch were no exception in this regard. After they dislodged the
Swedish Africa Company The Swedish Africa Company () was a Swedish trading company, founded in 1649 on the initiative of the Walloon- Dutch merchant Louis De Geer and his son Laurens, for whom Sweden had become a second home. The primary interest of the company was t ...
from the
Ahanta The Ahanta/Ayinda are Akan people who live to the north and east of the Nzema. The Ahanta land has been historically known as one of the richest areas on the coast of what is now Ghana. The Ahanta land spans from Beposo to Ankobra in what is no ...
area in what is now Western
Ghana Ghana, officially the Republic of Ghana, is a country in West Africa. It is situated along the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean to the south, and shares borders with Côte d’Ivoire to the west, Burkina Faso to the north, and Togo to t ...
, they signed the Treaty of Butre with the Ahanta in 1656, which nominally subjected the Ahanta to Dutch rule and allowed the Dutch to trade with the Ahanta from their basis at Fort Batenstein. While initially the European powers came to the Gold Coast primarily to trade in gold the trade in slaves began to gain prominence by the second half of the seventeenth century. This trade came to a rather sudden halt through the passing of the Abolition of the Slave Trade Act 1807 by the
United Kingdom The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Northwestern Europe, off the coast of European mainland, the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotlan ...
, which was subsequently taken over by the Dutch by a royal decree of June 1814 and an Anglo-Dutch Slave Trade Treaty signed in May 1818. These changing economic conditions caused tensions between the coastal peoples on the Gold Coast and the European powers with whom they were trading. Seeking a way to return their colony to a profit, the Dutch sent out a great mission to the
Ashanti Empire The Asante Empire ( Asante Twi: ), also known as the Ashanti Empire, was an Akan state that lasted from 1701 to 1901, in what is now modern-day Ghana. It expanded from the Ashanti Region to include most of Ghana and also parts of Ivory Coast ...
in the Gold Coast interior in early 1837, under the leadership of General Jan Verveer. The primary purpose of this mission was to tempt the Ashanti, with whom the Dutch had been allied since the mission of
David van Nyendael David van Nyendael, also van Nijendael (1667 – 20 October 1702), was a Dutch merchant and diplomat in the service of the Dutch West India Company, and stationed at the Dutch Gold Coast. Biography David van Nyendael was born in Golkonda, I ...
of 1702, into signing a treaty allowing the Dutch to recruit soldiers for the Dutch colonial army. The eventual success of the mission was met with suspicion by the other peoples of the Gold Coast.


The course of the war


The original conflict

From the early 1830s, the Dutch had a difficult relationship with the King of Ahanta
Badu Bonsu II Badu Bonsu II was a leader of the Ahanta who originally migrated south and separated from the Fante people upon reaching the Pra River and a Ghanaian king who was executed in 1838 by the Dutch, who, at the time, were in control of the Dutch Gold ...
. who had his palace at Busua. According to Tengbergen and Douchez, the direct cause of what would become an armed conflict between the Dutch and the Ahanta, was a dispute Badu Bonsu II had with chief Etteroe of
Sekondi Sekondi-Takoradi ( ) is a city in Ghana comprising the twin cities of Sekondi and Takoradi. It is the capital of Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolitan District and the Western Region of Ghana. Sekondi-Takoradi is the region's largest city as well as ...
. Etteroe had panyarred a woman and a child of King Badu Bonsu's for a debt of 14 ounces of gold Badu Bonsu II had with him. King Badu Bonsu II, however, learnt that Etteroe was trading
gunpowder Gunpowder, also commonly known as black powder to distinguish it from modern smokeless powder, is the earliest known chemical explosive. It consists of a mixture of sulfur, charcoal (which is mostly carbon), and potassium nitrate, potassium ni ...
with
Wassa The Wasa (or Wassa) is an Akan ethnic group predominantly inhabiting the Western Region of Ghana Ghana, officially the Republic of Ghana, is a country in West Africa. It is situated along the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean to ...
, a neighbouring state with whom the Ahanta had a conflict, while this trade had been forbidden by Badu Bonsu II. After Badu Bonsu II settled his debt with Etteroe and the woman and child were released, Badu Bonsu II requested a palaver with Etteroe in the presence of the Dutch commandant Gerard Smulders of
Fort San Sebastian A fortification (also called a fort, fortress, fastness, or stronghold) is a military construction designed for the defense of territories in warfare, and is used to establish rule in a region during peacetime. The term is derived from Lati ...
at Shama. Badu Bonsu II accused Etteroe of circumventing the ban on gunpowder trade with Wassa, and eventually Etteroe was condemned to pay a fine of 6 ounces of gold and to pay the process costs deemed 8 ounces of gold, equalling the 14 ounces Badu Bonsu II had earlier paid to Etteroe. Shortly afterwards, Etteroe accused Badu Bonsu II of extortion, which led commandant Smulders to summon Badu Bonsu II to Fort San Sebastian once more. Commandant Smulders was not present at Badu Bonsu's arrival, however, possibly because Badu Bonsu II also had a debt with him and wanted to annoy him. A humiliated Badu Bonsu II returned home, leading commandant Smulders to refer the case to the governor in
Elmina Elmina ( Fante: ''Edina'') is a town and the capital of the Komenda/Edina/Eguafo/Abirem District on the south coast of Ghana in the Central Region. It is situated on a bay on the Atlantic Ocean, west of Cape Coast.Straight line distances ...
, Hendrik Tonneboeijer, who on three separate occasions summoned Badu Bonsu II to Elmina, all to no avail. Tonneboeijer then sent the military commander of Elmina, George Maassen, to commander Adriaan Cremer of Fort Batenstein at
Butre Butre is a village in the Ahanta West district, district in the Western Region of Ghana Ghana, officially the Republic of Ghana, is a country in West Africa. It is situated along the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean to the south, a ...
, to summon Badu Bonsu II by force. Eventually, on 23 October 1837, Badu Bonsu II arrived at Butre in the company of armed men, but refused to climb the hill leading to Fort Batenstein, arguing that he wished to discuss the matter in the house of trader Anthonie Ruhle. Maassen and Cremer went down to Ruhle's house, where an altercation followed, which left both Dutchmen dead after they had fired warning shots.


Tonneboeijer assembles an expeditionary force

When the young and inexperienced interim governor Tonneboeijer heard of the news, he immediately assembled a force of 130 men to attack Badu Bonsu II, and left Elmina only two hours later, without as much as a plan of attack. Both the British governor at Cape Coast and the King of Elmina pleaded with him to postpone his attack, while the commandants of both
Fort San Sebastian A fortification (also called a fort, fortress, fastness, or stronghold) is a military construction designed for the defense of territories in warfare, and is used to establish rule in a region during peacetime. The term is derived from Lati ...
at Shama and
Fort Orange Fort Orange () was the first permanent Dutch settlement in New Netherland; the present-day city and state capital Albany, New York developed near this site. It was built in 1624 as a replacement for Fort Nassau, which had been built on n ...
at
Sekondi Sekondi-Takoradi ( ) is a city in Ghana comprising the twin cities of Sekondi and Takoradi. It is the capital of Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolitan District and the Western Region of Ghana. Sekondi-Takoradi is the region's largest city as well as ...
warned him that his force was too small and that a large army had gathered to oppose him. Tonneboeijer, who already had the reputation of being a hothead, would not listen, however, and on the morning of 28 October 1837, he and his army were ambushed on the beach near
Takoradi Sekondi-Takoradi ( ) is a city in Ghana comprising the twin cities of Sekondi and Takoradi. It is the capital of Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolitan District and the Western Region of Ghana. Sekondi-Takoradi is the region's largest city as well as ...
. Within minutes, 30 men were killed, including Tonneboeijer himself and four other colonial officials. News of the onslaught reached
The Hague The Hague ( ) is the capital city of the South Holland province of the Netherlands. With a population of over half a million, it is the third-largest city in the Netherlands. Situated on the west coast facing the North Sea, The Hague is the c ...
by the end of February 1838, where it was met with shock and disbelief. General Jan Verveer, who had just returned to the Netherlands from his mission to Ashanti, was sent out again to restore order in the colony. Together with lieutenant H.F. Tengbergen, who was second in command, he had an expeditionary force of 11 officers and 200 troops at his disposal to "quell the insurrection." Also on the ships that departed for Elmina were a new governor,
Hendrik Bosch Hendrik Bosch (born 26 February 1776 – 9 March 1864) was a Dutch military officer and colonial government official, who in his later life made a career in the administration on the Dutch Gold Coast. Biography Bosch was born in Spanbroek t ...
, and new administrative officers for the colony. In May 1838, the expedition landed in Elmina, where they were received by interim governor Anthony van der Eb.


Verveer's attack on Ahanta

After his arrival, Verveer took some time to form a coalition with other coastal peoples to attack Ahanta. An offer by the
Asantehene The is the title for the monarch of the historical Ashanti Empire as well as the ceremonial ruler of the Ashanti people today. The Ashanti royal house traces its line to the Oyoko (an '' Abusua'', or "clan") Abohyen Dynasty of Nana Twum and ...
to send 30,000 troops was rejected as it was seen as a cover by the Ashanti to gain a firm grip on the coastal peoples, but smaller offers of help by Enimir, Axim and Sekondi were accepted. On 30 June 1838, Verveer's force, which had been supplemented by 2,000 Elmina troops, set out to Ahanta. Badu Bonsu's messengers had in the meanwhile plead for a peaceful solution, and offered up to 200 ounces of gold for Badu Bonsu's pardon. Most Ahanta, at least those not too implicated in the earlier altercations, had already submitted themselves, and the campaign, which lasted for a month, mainly involved chasing rebels and destroying Ahanta towns such as Busua and
Takoradi Sekondi-Takoradi ( ) is a city in Ghana comprising the twin cities of Sekondi and Takoradi. It is the capital of Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolitan District and the Western Region of Ghana. Sekondi-Takoradi is the region's largest city as well as ...
. Badu Bonsu II was relinquished even before the expedition reached Ahanta proper, extradited by one of his people for 10 ounces of gold. He was then trialed at an ad-hoc open-field
court-martial A court-martial (plural ''courts-martial'' or ''courts martial'', as "martial" is a postpositive adjective) is a military court or a trial conducted in such a court. A court-martial is empowered to determine the guilt of members of the arme ...
and given the
death sentence Capital punishment, also known as the death penalty and formerly called judicial homicide, is the state-sanctioned killing of a person as punishment for actual or supposed misconduct. The sentence ordering that an offender be punished in s ...
on 25 July 1838. He was publicly hanged on the spot where Maassen and Cremer had been shot. According to Douchez, Badu Bonsu's head was then severed from his body by a medical officer of Elmina by the name of Schillet, to be preserved as a curiosity. Five other leaders of the rebellion were subsequently hanged at Elmina on 20 August 1838. Thirteen others were condemned to a forced exile to the
Dutch East Indies The Dutch East Indies, also known as the Netherlands East Indies (; ), was a Dutch Empire, Dutch colony with territory mostly comprising the modern state of Indonesia, which Proclamation of Indonesian Independence, declared independence on 17 Au ...
, where they were to work government coffee plantations on
Nusa Kambangan Nusa Kambangan is an island located in Indonesia, separated by a narrow strait from the south coast of Java. The closest port is Cilacap in Central Java province. It is known as the place where the fabled ''wijayakusuma'', which translates as th ...
, a prison island. A final thirty-six rebels were forced to work at the coffee and cotton plantations in Elmina. Governor
Hendrik Bosch Hendrik Bosch (born 26 February 1776 – 9 March 1864) was a Dutch military officer and colonial government official, who in his later life made a career in the administration on the Dutch Gold Coast. Biography Bosch was born in Spanbroek t ...
then granted amnesty to the rest of the Ahanta people during his installation on 8 August 1838.


The role of Pieter Bartels

Both Tengbergen and Douchez report that many saw a Euro-African by the name of Pieter Bartels as the main instigator of the conflict. According to witnesses, it was Bartels who, after Maassen fired a warning shot at Butre, shouted "Cowards! You are twenty times stronger than the whitemen! Shoot them!" Bartels was indeed exiled to the Dutch East Indies for his involvement in the war. According to Douchez, it was personal revenge that drove Bartels to his actions. Pieter Bartels, son of governor Cornelius Ludewich Bartels and a local woman, and half-brother of the wealthy and influential Euro-African trader Carel Hendrik Bartels, had initially made a promising career in the administration of the Dutch Gold Coast. As a native speaker of Fante, Dutch and English, his position as a mediator had been a great asset to the administration, and in reward he was installed as commandant of Fort Batenstein at Butre in 1834. His career came to a sudden end when on 3 March 1836, George Maassen—the same person that was later shot at Butre—and Hendrik Tonneboeijer—who later would become interim governor—complained to then-governor
Christiaan Lans Christiaan Ernst Lans (born 12 September 1789 – 17 August 1843) was a soldier in the Royal Netherlands Army who by royal decree of 2 December 1832 was appointed Commander of the Dutch Gold Coast. He took office on 11 May 1833 and served unti ...
about Bartels' behaviour towards them. According to Douchez, the conflict between the three originated with a spirits-induced boxing match between Tonneboeijer and Bartels at Shama, which had been won by Bartels. According to Douchez, Tonneboeijer was greatly upset to have lost a match against a Euro-African. Not able to cool Tonneboeijer down, Bartels put Tonneboeijer in
Fort San Sebastian A fortification (also called a fort, fortress, fastness, or stronghold) is a military construction designed for the defense of territories in warfare, and is used to establish rule in a region during peacetime. The term is derived from Lati ...
's prison, of which Bartels was the commandant at the time. Governor Lans took sides with Tonneboeijer in the conflict and saw Bartels as unfit for government service. Bartels was given an honourable discharge from government service on 11 June 1836 and settled as a trader in Ahanta. Douchez' account might seem far-fetched at first, but according to historian Albert van Dantzig, his version of the story is backed up by archival documents. Not only was Bartels' forced resignation chronicled, Tonneboeijer's erratic behaviour and hot temper were also documented: in 1835, Tonneboeijer had to be relieved of his command of Fort Saint Anthony at
Axim Axim is a coastal town and the capital of Nzema East Municipal district, a district in Western Region of South Ghana. Axim lies 64 kilometers west of the port city of Sekondi-Takoradi in the Western Region, west of Cape Three Points. Axim ha ...
because he had set parts of the town on fire, only to be accused of extortion later that year and serving eight days in confinement on
Fort Coenraadsburg Fort Coenraadsburg or Conraadsburg, also Fort São Tiago da Mina, is a small Portuguese chapel built in honor of Saint Jago and it is situated opposite the Elmina Castle in the Central region of Ghana, to protect Fort Elmina from attacks. Owin ...
for
absence without leave Desertion is the abandonment of a military duty or Military base, post without permission (a Pass (military), pass, Shore leave, liberty or Leave (U.S. military), leave) and is done with the intention of not returning. This contrasts with u ...
. During his tenure as interim governor, Tonneboeijer set fire to the canoe men quarter of Elmina as he judged they had been to slow in meeting his requests for assistance, and forcefully cleared another part of the overcrowded town for a new street plan. Tonneboeijer was hated by the local population and the news of his death was met with a sigh of relief. It is therefore highly likely that Lans' siding with Tonneboeijer in his dispute with Bartels had more to do with Tonneboeijer's colour of skin rather than with reason. Racism is also evidenced in Verveer's letter to the governor-general of the Dutch East Indies in which he explained Bartels' exile. Verveer recommended Bartels for a lower administrative position in the Dutch East Indies, as his career in the administration of the Dutch Gold Coast had shown his capabilities. Verveer argued, however, that after his dismissal, Bartels' "inborn character, always prone to violence and drunkenness, had worsened" and how he "finally became morally a negro."


Aftermath

Citing provisions in the Treaty of Butre, the 1656 treaty which governed the relations between the Dutch and Ahanta, the Dutch reorganised the Ahanta state after the war, appointing Anthony van der Eb, the new Dutch commandant at Fort Batenstein, as Vice-Governor of the Ahanta Protectorate (Dutch: ''vice-gouverneur voor het Ahantasche Landschap''), and keeping the country under close control with an enlarged military and civilian presence. Pieter Bartels was to remain in exile in the Dutch East Indies, where he died in
Semarang Semarang (Javanese script, Javanese: , ''Kutha Semarang'') is the capital and largest city of Central Java province in Indonesia. It was a major port during the Netherlands, Dutch Dutch East Indies, colonial era, and is still an important regio ...
in 1847. Despite the warning of Verveer that Bartels should not come in contact with the African recruits for the Dutch East Indian Army, Bartels knowledge of Fante proved too worthwhile: Bartels translation of army regulations into Fante and
Twi Twi (; ) is the common name of the Akan literary language of Asante and Akuapem. Effectively, it is a synonym for 'Akan' that is not used by the Fante people. It is not a linguistic grouping, but more of a common name used by inland Akans as ...
was widely used in the army. The head of king Badu Bonsu II was rediscovered in the
Leiden University Medical Center Leiden University Medical Center (Dutch: ''Leids Universitair Medisch Centrum'') or LUMC is the university hospital affiliated with Leiden University, of which it forms the medical faculty. It is located in Leiden, Netherlands. LUMC is a modern u ...
(LUMC) in the
Netherlands , Terminology of the Low Countries, informally Holland, is a country in Northwestern Europe, with Caribbean Netherlands, overseas territories in the Caribbean. It is the largest of the four constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Nether ...
by Dutch author Arthur Japin, who had read the account of the head during research for his 1997 novel ''
De zwarte met het witte hart ''The Two Hearts of Kwasi Boachi'' ( , "The black with the white heart") is the 1997 debut novel by Dutch author Arthur Japin. The novel tells the story of two Ashanti Empire, Ashanti princes, Kwame Poku and Kwasi Boakye, Kwasi Boachi, who were t ...
''. Japin found the head in 2005, stored in formaldehyde at the LUMC. In March 2009, government officials announced that the head would be returned to its homeland for proper burial, a promise fulfilled on July 23, 2009, after a ceremony was held in The Hague.


See also

* Treaty of Butre *
Dutch Gold Coast expedition of 1869–1870 Dutch or Nederlands commonly refers to: * Something of, from, or related to the Netherlands ** Dutch people as an ethnic group () ** Dutch nationality law, history and regulations of Dutch citizenship () ** Dutch language () * In specific terms, i ...


Citations


References

* * * * * * * {{DEFAULTSORT:Dutch-Ahanta War Wars involving the Netherlands Dutch Gold Coast African resistance to colonialism