L Calpurnius Piso Pontifex MAN Napoli Inv5601

The gens Calpurnia was a

plebeian In ancient Rome, the plebeians or plebs were the general body of free Roman citizens who were not patricians, as determined by the census, or in other words "commoners". Both classes were hereditary. Etymology The precise origins of the gro ...

family at

ancient Rome In modern historiography, ancient Rome is the Roman people, Roman civilisation from the founding of Rome, founding of the Italian city of Rome in the 8th century BC to the Fall of the Western Roman Empire, collapse of the Western Roman Em ...

, which first appears in history during the third century BC. The first of the

gens In ancient Rome, a gens ( or , ; : gentes ) was a family consisting of individuals who shared the same ''nomen gentilicium'' and who claimed descent from a common ancestor. A branch of a gens, sometimes identified by a distinct cognomen, was cal ...

to obtain the

consulship The consuls were the highest elected public officials of the Roman Republic ( to 27 BC). Romans considered the consulship the second-highest level of the ''cursus honorum''an ascending sequence of public offices to which politicians aspire ...

was Gaius Calpurnius Piso in 180 BC, but from this time their consulships were very frequent, and the family of the Pisones became one of the most illustrious in the Roman state. Two important pieces of Republican legislation, the '' lex Calpurnia'' of 149 BC and '' lex Acilia Calpurnia'' of 67 BC were passed by members of the gens.''Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology'', vol. I, p. 582 ("

Calpurnia Gens The gens Calpurnia was a plebs, plebeian family at ancient Rome, which first appears in history during the third century BC. The first of the gens to obtain the Roman consul, consulship was Gaius Calpurnius Piso (consul 180 BC), Gaius Calpurnius ...

").

Origin

The Calpurnii claimed descent from Calpus, the son of

Numa Pompilius Numa Pompilius (; 753–672 BC; reigned 715–672 BC) was the Roman mythology, legendary second king of Rome, succeeding Romulus after a one-year interregnum. He was of Sabine origin, and many of Rome's most important religious and political ins ...

, the second King of Rome, and accordingly the head of Numa is found on some of the coins of this gens.

Praenomina

The principal

praenomina The praenomen (; plural: praenomina) was a first name chosen by the parents of a Ancient Rome, Roman child. It was first bestowed on the ''dies lustricus'' (day of lustration), the eighth day after the birth of a girl, or the ninth day after the ...

of the Calpurnii were '' Lucius,

Gaius Gaius, sometimes spelled Caius, was a common Latin praenomen; see Gaius (praenomen). People * Gaius (biblical figure) (1st century AD) *Gaius (jurist) (), Roman jurist * Gaius Acilius * Gaius Antonius * Gaius Antonius Hybrida * Gaius Asinius Gal ...

, Marcus'', and '' Gnaeus''. '' Publius'' was not a regular name of the Calpurnia gens during the

Republic A republic, based on the Latin phrase ''res publica'' ('public affair' or 'people's affair'), is a State (polity), state in which Power (social and political), political power rests with the public (people), typically through their Representat ...

, but was used by the Calpurnii Lanarii.

Branches and cognomina

The family-names of the Calpurnii under the

were ''Bestia, Bibulus, Flamma'', ''Lanarius'', and ''Piso''. ''Piso'' was the name of the greatest family of the Calpurnia gens. Like many other cognomina, this name is connected with agriculture, and comes from the verb or , which refers to the pounding or grinding of corn. The family first rose from obscurity during the

Second Punic War The Second Punic War (218 to 201 BC) was the second of Punic Wars, three wars fought between Ancient Carthage, Carthage and Roman Republic, Rome, the two main powers of the western Mediterranean Basin, Mediterranean in the 3rd century BC. For ...

, and from that time it became one of the most distinguished in the Roman state. It preserved its celebrity under the empire, and during the first century was second to the imperial family alone. Many of the Pisones bore this cognomen alone, but others bore the agnomina ''Caesoninus'' and ''Frugi''. Of the other surnames of the Republican Calpurnii, ''Bestia'' refers to a "beast", "an animal without reason". ''Bibulus'' translates as "fond of drinking", or "thirsty", while ''Flamma'' refers to a flame.

Members

Early Calpurnii

* Marcus Calpurnius Flamma, one of the

military tribune A military tribune () was an officer of the Roman army who ranked below the legate and above the centurion. Young men of Equestrian rank often served as military tribunes as a stepping stone to the Senate. The should not be confused with the ...

s in 258 BC, during the

First Punic War The First Punic War (264–241 BC) was the first of three wars fought between Rome and Carthage, the two main powers of the western Mediterranean in the early 3rd century BC. For 23 years, in the longest continuous conflict and grea ...

, led a daring mission to relieve the army of the consul Aulus Atilius Calatinus.

Calpurnii Pisones

* Gaius Calpurnius (C. f.) Piso, praetor ''urbanus'' in 211 BC. * Gaius Calpurnius C. f. C. n. Piso, praetor in 186 BC, and consul in 180, triumphed over the

Lusitani The Lusitanians were an Indo-European languages, Indo-European-speaking people living in the far west of the Iberian Peninsula, in present-day central Portugal and Extremadura and Castilla y Leon of Spain. It is uncertain whether the Lusitanians ...

and Celtiberi. * Lucius Calpurnius C. f. C. n. Piso Caesoninus, consul in 148 BC. * Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso, consul in 139 BC. * Quintus Calpurnius C. f. Piso, consul in 135 BC, sent against Numantia, but instead of attacking the city, plundered the territory of

Pallantia Palencia () is a city of Spain located in the autonomous community of Castile and León. It is the capital and most populated municipality of the province of Palencia. Located in the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula, in the northern half of ...

. * Calpurnius Piso, praetor ''circa'' 135, defeated during the

First Servile War The First Servile War of 135–132 BC was a slave rebellion against the Roman Republic, which took place in Sicily. The revolt started in 135 when Eunus, a slave from Syria who claimed to be a prophet, captured the city of Enna in the middl ...

. * Calpurnius Piso, fought successfully against the

Thracians The Thracians (; ; ) were an Indo-European languages, Indo-European speaking people who inhabited large parts of Southeast Europe in ancient history.. "The Thracians were an Indo-European people who occupied the area that today is shared betwee ...

''circa'' 104 BC. * Lucius Calpurnius L. f. C. n. Piso Caesoninus, consul in 112 BC. * Lucius Calpurnius Piso, quaestor ''circa'' 100 BC, might be the same person as the armourer. * Lucius Calpurnius L. f. L. n. Piso Caesoninus, manufactured arms at Rome during the Social War. * Lucius Calpurnius L. f. L. n. Piso Caesoninus, consul in 58 BC, and father-in-law of Caesar. * Calpurnia L. f. L. n., the last wife of Caesar. * Lucius Calpurnius L. f. L. n. Piso Caesoninus, consul in 15 BC. * Lucius Calpurnius L. f. L. n. Piso Caesoninus, elder son of the consul of 15 BC. * Lucius Calpurnius Piso (Frugi or Caesoninus),

tribune of the plebs Tribune of the plebs, tribune of the people or plebeian tribune () was the first office of the Roman Republic, Roman state that was open to the plebs, plebeians, and was, throughout the history of the Republic, the most important check on the pow ...

in 90 BC, possibly identical with a ''

strategos ''Strategos'' (), also known by its Linguistic Latinisation, Latinized form ''strategus'', is a Greek language, Greek term to mean 'military General officer, general'. In the Hellenistic world and in the Byzantine Empire, the term was also use ...

'' of that name in

Asia Asia ( , ) is the largest continent in the world by both land area and population. It covers an area of more than 44 million square kilometres, about 30% of Earth's total land area and 8% of Earth's total surface area. The continent, which ...

, whose activity has been dated variously from shortly before 90 to as late as 83. * Lucius Calpurnius L. f. C. n. Piso Frugi, consul in 133 BC. * Lucius Calpurnius L. f. L. n. Piso Frugi, praetor in

Hispania Ulterior Hispania Ulterior (English: "Further Hispania", or occasionally "Thither Hispania") was a Roman province located in Hispania (on the Iberian Peninsula) during the Roman Republic, roughly located in Baetica and in the Guadalquivir valley of moder ...

''circa'' 112 BC, where he died in battle. * Lucius Calpurnius L. f. L. n. Piso Frugi, praetor in 74 BC, frustrated some of the schemes of his colleague,

Verres Gaius Verres ( 114 – 43 BC) was a Roman magistrate, notorious for his misgovernment of Sicily. His extortion of local farmers and plundering of temples led to his prosecution by Cicero, whose accusations were so devastating that his defence advo ...

. * Gaius Calpurnius L. f. L. n. Piso Frugi,

quaestor A quaestor ( , ; ; "investigator") was a public official in ancient Rome. There were various types of quaestors, with the title used to describe greatly different offices at different times. In the Roman Republic, quaestors were elected officia ...

in 58 BC, married Tullia, the daughter of

Cicero Marcus Tullius Cicero ( ; ; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, orator, writer and Academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises tha ...

. * Gaius Calpurnius Piso, consul in 67 BC. * Gnaeus Calpurnius Cn.f. Piso, one of Catiline's conspirators, quaestor in

Hispania Citerior Hispania Citerior (English: "Hither Iberia", or "Nearer Iberia") was a Roman province in Hispania during the Roman Republic. It was on the eastern coast of Iberia down to the town of Cartago Nova, today's Cartagena in the autonomous community of ...

in 65 BC. He was murdered by mutinous Spanish horsemen. * Marcus Pupius Piso Frugi, originally one of the Calpurnii, adopted by Marcus Pupius. * Gnaeus Calpurnius Cn. f. C. n. Piso, a partisan of Pompeius, and subsequently of Brutus and Cassius; subsequently pardoned, and made consul in 23 BC. * Gnaeus Calpurnius Cn. f. Cn. n. Piso, consul in 7 BC, accused of murdering

Germanicus Germanicus Julius Caesar (24 May 15 BC – 10 October AD 19) was a Roman people, Roman general and politician most famously known for his campaigns against Arminius in Germania. The son of Nero Claudius Drusus and Antonia the Younger, Germanicu ...

. * Lucius Calpurnius Cn. f. Cn. n. Piso 'augur', consul in 1 BC. * Lucius Calpurnius Piso, accused of plotting against the life of

Tiberius Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus ( ; 16 November 42 BC – 16 March AD 37) was Roman emperor from AD 14 until 37. He succeeded his stepfather Augustus, the first Roman emperor. Tiberius was born in Rome in 42 BC to Roman politician Tiberius Cl ...

in AD 24. * Lucius Calpurnius Piso, praetor in

in AD 25. * Lucius Calpurnius Cn. f. Cn. n. Piso, consul in AD 27. * Marcus Calpurnius Cn. f. Cn. n. Piso, the younger son of the consul of 7 BC, was accused with his father, but pardoned by Tiberius. * Gaius Calpurnius Piso, consul in AD 41 with the emperor

Claudius Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( ; ; 1 August 10 BC – 13 October AD 54), or Claudius, was a Roman emperor, ruling from AD 41 to 54. A member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, Claudius was born to Nero Claudius Drusus, Drusus and Ant ...

, and the instigator of the

conspiracy A conspiracy, also known as a plot, ploy, or scheme, is a secret plan or agreement between people (called conspirers or conspirators) for an unlawful or harmful purpose, such as murder, treason, or corruption, especially with a political motivat ...

against

Nero Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( ; born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus; 15 December AD 37 – 9 June AD 68) was a Roman emperor and the final emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, reigning from AD 54 until his ...

in AD 65. * Lucius Calpurnius L. f. Cn. n. Piso, consul in AD 57 with the emperor Nero. * Lucius Calpurnius Piso Frugi Licinianus, named heir by the emperor Galba, and murdered on the orders of

Otho Otho ( ; born Marcus Salvius Otho; 28 April 32 – 16 April 69) was Roman emperor, ruling for three months from 15 January to 16 April 69. He was the second emperor of the Year of the Four Emperors. A member of a noble Etruscan civilization, ...

in AD 69. * Calpurnius C. f. Piso Galerianus, son of the consul of AD 41, was murdered by Gaius Licinius Mucianus, a supporter of

Vespasian Vespasian (; ; 17 November AD 9 – 23 June 79) was Roman emperor from 69 to 79. The last emperor to reign in the Year of the Four Emperors, he founded the Flavian dynasty, which ruled the Empire for 27 years. His fiscal reforms and consolida ...

. * Gaius Calpurnius Piso Crassus Frugi Licinianus, consul in AD 87. Exiled to Tarentum for conspiring against the emperor Nerva; exiled again for conspiring against Trajan; murdered early in the reign of Hadrian. * Gaius Calpurnius Piso, consul ''suffectus'' in AD 97. * Gaius Calpurnius Piso, consul in AD 111. * Lucius Calpurnius Piso, consul in AD 175, during the reign of

Marcus Aurelius Marcus Aurelius Antoninus ( ; ; 26 April 121 – 17 March 180) was Roman emperor from 161 to 180 and a Stoicism, Stoic philosopher. He was a member of the Nerva–Antonine dynasty, the last of the rulers later known as the Five Good Emperors ...

. * Piso "Frugi", a third-century general, described as an usurper by the ''

Historia Augusta The ''Historia Augusta'' (English: ''Augustan History'') is a late Roman collection of biographies, written in Latin, of the Roman emperors, their junior colleagues, Caesar (title), designated heirs and Roman usurper, usurpers from 117 to 284. S ...

''. In AD 261 he was sent by Macrianus Major, one of Valerian's lieutenants, to deal with Valens Thessalonicus, the governor of Achaia under Gallienus. Piso halted his troops in

Thessaly Thessaly ( ; ; ancient Aeolic Greek#Thessalian, Thessalian: , ) is a traditional geographic regions of Greece, geographic and modern administrative regions of Greece, administrative region of Greece, comprising most of the ancient Thessaly, a ...

, and proclaimed himself emperor, but he was slain the same year, and his revolt put down by Valens.

Calpurnii Lanarii

* Publius Calpurnius, in 133 BC, was perhaps the father of Lanarius, since the name Publius appears in no other branch of the gens. * Calpurnius (P. f.) Lanarius, an officer during the war against Sertorius in 81 BC, he defeated and killed Sertorius' legate, Lucius Julius Salinator, in the

Pyrenees The Pyrenees are a mountain range straddling the border of France and Spain. They extend nearly from their union with the Cantabrian Mountains to Cap de Creus on the Mediterranean coast, reaching a maximum elevation of at the peak of Aneto. ...

. Under whom he served is unclear; he may have initially been a partisan of Sertorius, making his battle against Salinator an act of betrayal. * Publius Calpurnius (P. f.) Lanarius, the purchaser of a house from a certain Claudius Centumalus. He might be the same man who fought against Sertorius.

Calpurnii Bestiae

* Lucius Calpurnius Bestia, consul in 111 BC, prosecuted the

Jugurthine War The Jugurthine War (; 112–106 BC) was an armed conflict between the Roman Republic and King Jugurtha of Numidia, a kingdom on the north African coast approximating to modern Algeria. Jugurtha was the nephew and adopted son of Micipsa, ki ...

, at first with much vigor, but through the payment of a substantial sum of money he was induced to conclude a peace. He or his son was exiled under the Varian law in 90 BC. * Lucius Calpurnius L. f. Bestia, son of the Lucius Calpurnius Bestia who was consul in 111 BC. He may have been the Bestia who went into exile when threatened with prosecution under the '' lex Varia'' in 90 BC.Syme, ''Approaching the Roman Revolution'', p. 135. * Calpurnia L. f., the wife of Publius Antistius, and mother-in-law of

Pompey Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (; 29 September 106 BC – 28 September 48 BC), known in English as Pompey ( ) or Pompey the Great, was a Roman general and statesman who was prominent in the last decades of the Roman Republic. ...

. Upon her husband's murder, she stabbed herself in the chest. * Lucius Calpurnius Bestia, a supporter of Catilina, became tribune of the plebs in 62 BC, following the failure of the conspiracy. He attacked Cicero for his actions as consul. * Lucius Calpurnius Bestia, aedile in 57 BC, was a candidate for the praetorship. The following year, Cicero successfully defended him on a charge of electoral bribery. He later went into exile, but regained his status and became a follower of

Mark Antony Marcus Antonius (14 January 1 August 30 BC), commonly known in English as Mark Antony, was a Roman people, Roman politician and general who played a critical role in the Crisis of the Roman Republic, transformation of the Roman Republic ...

. * Lucius Sempronius L. f. L. n. Atratinus, consul in 34 BC, was the natural son of a Calpurnius Bestia. His father was probably the Lucius Calpurnius Bestia who was aedile in 57 BC. His mother may have been a Sempronia.

Calpurnii Bibuli

* Gaius Calpurnius (Bibulus), father of the consul Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus.Calpurnius
Strachan stemma. * Marcus Calpurnius C. f. Bibulus, consul in 59 BC, was an opponent of Caesar, and a partisan of Pompeius during the

Civil War A civil war is a war between organized groups within the same Sovereign state, state (or country). The aim of one side may be to take control of the country or a region, to achieve independence for a region, or to change government policies.J ...

. * Marcus Calpurnius M. f. C. n. Bibulus, eldest son of the consul Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus, was killed in

Egypt Egypt ( , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country spanning the Northeast Africa, northeast corner of Africa and Western Asia, southwest corner of Asia via the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to northe ...

in 50 BC by the soldiers of Aulus Gabinius.Caesar, ''De Bello Civili'', iii. 110.Valerius Maximus, iv. 1. § 15. * Gaius Calpurnius M. f. C. n. Bibulus, the second son of the consul Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus, was also killed by the Gabiniani in Egypt in 50 BC. * Lucius Calpurnius M. f. C. n. Bibulus, the third son of the consul Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus, was appointed governor of

Syria Syria, officially the Syrian Arab Republic, is a country in West Asia located in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Levant. It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to Syria–Turkey border, the north, Iraq to Iraq–Syria border, t ...

Augustus Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian (), was the founder of the Roman Empire, who reigned as the first Roman emperor from 27 BC until his death in A ...

. * Calpurnia M. f. C. n., daughter of the consul Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus, * (Gaius) Calpurnius M. f. C. n. Bibulus, the fourth son of the consul Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus, and the only attested son by his second wife, Porcia, became the stepson of Marcus Junius Brutus upon her remarriage. * Gaius (Calpurnius) Bibulus, aedile in AD 22, may have been the son of Gaius Calpurnius Bibulus, Brutus' stepson. * (Calpurnia) Domitia Calvina, daughter of Lucius and Domitia Calvina, was the mother of Marcus Junius Silanus Torquatus, consul in AD 19.Syme, "M. Bibulus and Four Sons".

Others

Kastell Koblenz Niederberg Altastein 3- Jh

* Lucius Calpurnius, sent as ambassador to the Achaians at

Sicyon Sicyon (; ; ''gen''.: Σικυῶνος) or Sikyōn was an ancient Greek city state situated in the northern Peloponnesus between Corinth and Achaea on the territory of the present-day regional unit of Corinthia. The ruins lie just west of th ...

in 198 BC. * Calpurnius, a praetorian senator around 90 BC, may be identical with Publius, the ''monetalis'' in 133. * Calpurnius, standard-bearer of the first legion in

Germania Germania ( ; ), also more specifically called Magna Germania (English: ''Great Germania''), Germania Libera (English: ''Free Germania''), or Germanic Barbaricum to distinguish it from the Roman provinces of Germania Inferior and Germania Superio ...

at the accession of Tiberius in AD 14, he prevented the soldiers of

from murdering Munatius Plancus, the envoy of the

senate A senate is a deliberative assembly, often the upper house or chamber of a bicameral legislature. The name comes from the ancient Roman Senate (Latin: ''Senatus''), so-called as an assembly of the senior (Latin: ''senex'' meaning "the el ...

. * Gaius Calpurnius Aviola, consul in AD 24, perhaps one of the Pisones. * Calpurnius Salvianus, accused Sextus Marius in AD 25, but was rebuked by Tiberius and banished by the senate. * Calpurnia, a favorite concubine of the emperor

, despatched by Narcissus to inform the emperor of the marriage of Messalina and Gaius Silius. * Calpurnia, a woman of high rank, exiled due to the jealousy of Agrippina, the wife of Claudius, but recalled by Nero in AD 60, after Agrippina's murder. * Calpurnius Fabatus, an eques accused of various crimes during the reign of Nero; he was grandfather of Calpurnia, the third wife of

Pliny the Younger Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus (born Gaius Caecilius or Gaius Caecilius Cilo; 61 – ), better known in English as Pliny the Younger ( ), was a lawyer, author, and magistrate of Ancient Rome. Pliny's uncle, Pliny the Elder, helped raise and e ...

. * Calpurnia, the third wife of Pliny the Younger. * Calpurnius Asprenas, appointed governor of Galatia and

Pamphylia Pamphylia (; , ''Pamphylía'' ) was a region in the south of Anatolia, Asia Minor, between Lycia and Cilicia, extending from the Mediterranean Sea, Mediterranean to Mount Taurus (all in modern-day Antalya province, Turkey). It was bounded on the ...

by the emperor Galba, induced the partisans of the false Nero to put the usurper to death. * Marcus Calpurnius ..cus, consul ''suffectus'' in AD 96. * Calpurnius Flaccus, a rhetorician in the time of

Hadrian Hadrian ( ; ; 24 January 76 – 10 July 138) was Roman emperor from 117 to 138. Hadrian was born in Italica, close to modern Seville in Spain, an Italic peoples, Italic settlement in Hispania Baetica; his branch of the Aelia gens, Aelia '' ...

. * Marcus Calpurnius Rufus, the father of Longus, the consul of 144. * Lucius Marcius Celer Marcus Calpurnius M. f. Longus, consul ''suffectus'' in AD 144. This family was from Attaleia.Eck, "L. Marcius Celer M. Calpurnius Longus".Camodeca, "Una nuova coppia di consoli del 148". * Sextus Calpurnius Agricola, consul ''suffectus'' in AD 154, and subsequently governor of

Germania Superior Germania Superior ("Upper Germania") was an imperial province of the Roman Empire. It comprised an area of today's western Switzerland, the French Jura and Alsace regions, and southwestern Germany. Important cities were Besançon ('' Vesont ...

and Britain. In the late 160s, he was imperial legate in

Dacia Dacia (, ; ) was the land inhabited by the Dacians, its core in Transylvania, stretching to the Danube in the south, the Black Sea in the east, and the Tisza in the west. The Carpathian Mountains were located in the middle of Dacia. It thus ro ...

, and governor of Lower Moesia. * Gaius Calpurnius Rufinus, a third-century senator who constructed the Sanctuary of Panoias, dedicated to

Serapis Serapis or Sarapis is a Egyptian Greeks, Graeco-Egyptian god. A Religious syncretism, syncretic deity derived from the worship of the Egyptian Osiris and Apis (deity), Apis, Serapis was extensively popularized in the third century BC on the ord ...

and other divinities of the underworld, now in

Vila Real Vila Real () is the capital and largest city of the Vila Real District, in the Norte, Portugal, North region, Portugal. It is also the seat of the Douro (intermunicipal community), Douro Intermunicipal communities of Portugal, intermunicipal comm ...

, Portugal. * Titus Calpurnius Siculus, a poet, who probably flourished in the latter half of the third century. * Calpurnius, a fourth century

Christian A Christian () is a person who follows or adheres to Christianity, a Monotheism, monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus in Christianity, Jesus Christ. Christians form the largest religious community in the wo ...

deacon, and the father of St. Patrick.

Notes

References

Bibliography

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Philippicae The ''Philippics'' () are a series of 14 speeches composed by Cicero in 44 and 43 BC, condemning Mark Antony. Cicero likened these speeches to those of Demosthenes against Philip II of Macedon; both Demosthenes' and Cicero's speeches became ...

''. * Gaius Julius Caesar, ''

Commentarii de Bello Civili '' Commentarii de Bello Civili'' (''Commentaries on the Civil War''), or ''Bellum Civile'', is an account written by Julius Caesar of his war against Gnaeus Pompeius and the Roman Senate. It consists of three books covering the events of 49– ...

'' (Commentaries on the Civil War). * Quintus Horatius Flaccus (

Horace Quintus Horatius Flaccus (; 8 December 65 BC – 27 November 8 BC), Suetonius, Life of Horace commonly known in the English-speaking world as Horace (), was the leading Roman lyric poet during the time of Augustus (also known as Octavian). Th ...

), '' Ars Poëtica'' (The Art of Poetry). * Titus Livius (

Livy Titus Livius (; 59 BC – AD 17), known in English as Livy ( ), was a Roman historian. He wrote a monumental history of Rome and the Roman people, titled , covering the period from the earliest legends of Rome before the traditional founding i ...

), '' History of Rome''. * Marcus Velleius Paterculus, ''Compendium of Roman History''. *

Valerius Maximus Valerius Maximus () was a 1st-century Latin writer and author of a collection of historical anecdotes: ' ("Nine books of memorable deeds and sayings", also known as ''De factis dictisque memorabilibus'' or ''Facta et dicta memorabilia''). He worke ...

, ''Factorum ac Dictorum Memorabilium'' (Memorable Facts and Sayings). * Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus (

), '' Epistulae'' (Letters). *

Publius Cornelius Tacitus Publius Cornelius Tacitus, known simply as Tacitus ( , ; – ), was a Roman historian and politician. Tacitus is widely regarded as one of the greatest Roman historiography, Roman historians by modern scholars. Tacitus’ two major historical ...

, ''

Annales Annals are a concise form of historical writing which record events chronologically, year by year. The equivalent word in Latin and French is ''annales'', which is used untranslated in English in various contexts. List of works with titles contai ...

'', '' Historiae''. * Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus (

Plutarch Plutarch (; , ''Ploútarchos'', ; – 120s) was a Greek Middle Platonist philosopher, historian, biographer, essayist, and priest at the Temple of Apollo (Delphi), Temple of Apollo in Delphi. He is known primarily for his ''Parallel Lives'', ...

), '' Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans''. * Lucius Annaeus Florus, ''Epitome de T. Livio Bellorum Omnium Annorum DCC'' (Epitome of Livy: All the Wars of Seven Hundred Years). * Appianus Alexandrinus (

Appian Appian of Alexandria (; ; ; ) was a Greek historian with Roman citizenship who prospered during the reigns of the Roman Emperors Trajan, Hadrian, and Antoninus Pius. He was born c. 95 in Alexandria. After holding the senior offices in the pr ...

), ''Hispanica'' (The Spanish Wars). * Sextus Pompeius Festus, ''Epitome de M. Verrio Flacco de Verborum Significatu'' (Epitome of Marcus Verrius Flaccus' ''On the Meaning of Words''). *

Cassius Dio Lucius Cassius Dio (), also known as Dio Cassius ( ), was a Roman historian and senator of maternal Greek origin. He published 80 volumes of the history of ancient Rome, beginning with the arrival of Aeneas in Italy. The volumes documented the ...

, ''Roman History''. * Aelius Lampridius, Aelius Spartianus, Flavius Vopiscus, Julius Capitolinus, Trebellius Pollio, and Vulcatius Gallicanus, ''

'' (Augustan History). * Julius Obsequens, ''Liber de Prodigiis'' (The Book of Prodigies). * Paulus Orosius, ''Historiarum Adversum Paganos'' (History Against the Pagans). * Sextus Aurelius Victor (attributed), '' Epitome de Caesaribus''. * Pierre Pithou (Petrus Pithoeus) ''Declamations of Calpurnius Flaccus'', Paris, 1580. * Joseph Hilarius Eckhel, ''Doctrina Numorum Veterum'' (The Study of Ancient Coins, 1792–1798). * ''

Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology The ''Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology'' is a biographical dictionary of classical antiquity, edited by William Smith (lexicographer), William Smith and originally published in London by John Taylor (English publisher), Tayl ...

'', William Smith, ed., Little, Brown and Company, Boston (1849). *

Theodor Mommsen Christian Matthias Theodor Mommsen (; ; 30 November 1817 – 1 November 1903) was a German classical scholar, historian, jurist, journalist, politician and archaeologist. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest classicists of the 19th ce ...

''et alii'', ''

Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum The ''Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum'' (''CIL'') is a comprehensive collection of ancient Latin inscriptions. It forms an authoritative source for documenting the surviving epigraphy of classical antiquity. Public and personal inscriptions throw ...

'' (The Body of Latin Inscriptions, abbreviated ''CIL''), Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften (1853–present). * René Cagnat ''et alii'', '' L'Année épigraphique'' (The Year in Epigraphy, abbreviated ''AE''), Presses Universitaires de France (1888–present). * August Pauly, Georg Wissowa, ''et alii'', ''

Realencyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft The Pauly encyclopedias or the Pauly-Wissowa family of encyclopedias, are a set of related encyclopedias on Greco-Roman world, Greco-Roman classical studies, topics and scholarship. The first of these, or (1839–1852), was begun by compiler A ...

'' (Scientific Encyclopedia of the Knowledge of Classical Antiquities, abbreviated ''RE'' or ''PW''), J. B. Metzler, Stuttgart (1894–1980). * T. Robert S. Broughton, ''The Magistrates of the Roman Republic'', American Philological Association (1952–1986). *

Ronald Syme Sir Ronald Syme, (11 March 1903 – 4 September 1989) was a New Zealand-born historian and classicist. He was regarded as the greatest historian of ancient Rome since Theodor Mommsen and the most brilliant exponent of the history of the Roma ...

Missing Senators
, '' Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte'', Bd. 4, H. 1 (1955), pp. 52–71
"Piso Frugi and Crassus Frugi"
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"The ''Fasti'' for A.D. 70–96"
in '' Classical Quarterly'', vol. 31, pp. 186–220 (1981). * Jane W. Crawford, ''M. Tullius Cicero: The Lost and Unpublished Orations'', Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht (1984) . * R. J. Tarrant (editor), "unknown article", in ''Harvard Studies in Classical Philology'', Harvard University Press, vol. XCI, pp. 198 ''ff''. (1987) . * Ronald Syme,
M. Bibulus and Four Sons
, in ''Harvard Studies in Classical Philology'', Harvard University Press, vol. 91, pp. 185–198 (1987). * Broughton, "Candidates Defeated in Roman Elections: Some Ancient Roman "Also-Rans"", '' Transactions of the American Philosophical Society'', vol. 81, no. 4 (1991), pp. 1–64, . * Werner Eck,
L. Marcius Celer M. Calpurnius Longus Prokonsul von Achaia und Suffektkonsul unter Hadrian
, in '' Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik'', vol. 86, pp. 97–106 (1991). * Christoph F. Konrad, ''Plutarch's Sertorius: A Historical Commentary'', University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill (1994) . * Giuseppe Camodeca,
Una nuova coppia di consoli del 148 e il proconsul Achaiae M. Calpurnius Longus
, in ''Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik'', vol. 112, pp. 235–240 (1996). * John D. Grainger, ''Nerva and the Roman Succession Crisis of AD 96–99'', Routledge, London (2004). * Tom Holland, ''Rubicon: The Triumph and Tragedy of the Roman Republic'', Abacus, London (2004) . * Klaus Zmeskal, ''Adfinitas: Die Verwandtschaften der senatorischen Führungsschicht der römischen Republik von 218-31 v.Chr'', vol. 1, Karl Stutz Verlag, (2009) . * Patricia Southern, ''Roman Britain: A New History 55 BC–AD 450'', Amberley (2011). * Ronald Syme, ''Approaching the Roman Revolution: Papers on Republican History'', Oxford University Press (2016).