Cyphonism (, from , "bent, crooked") was a form of punishment using a (), a kind of wooden

pillory The pillory is a device made of a wooden or metal framework erected on a post, with holes for securing the head and hands, used during the medieval and renaissance periods for punishment by public humiliation and often further physical abuse. ...

in which the neck of a malefactor would be fastened. Some sources describe cyphonism more specifically as involving a method similar to

scaphism Scaphism (from Greek , meaning "boat"), also known as the boats, is reported by Plutarch in his ''Life of Artaxerxes'' as an ancient Persian method of execution. He describes the victim being trapped between two small boats, one inverted on top o ...

, in which a person's naked body, having been locked in the ''kyphōn'', was smeared with honey, and exposed to flies, wasps, and other pests.

Greek sources

The Greek term survives in two places. The first is an explanatory gloss in the

scholia Scholia (: scholium or scholion, from , "comment", "interpretation") are grammatical, critical, or explanatory comments – original or copied from prior commentaries – which are inserted in the margin of the manuscript of ancient a ...

on the ''

Plutus In ancient Greek religion and mythology, Plutus (; ) is the god and the personification of wealth, and the son of the goddess of agriculture Demeter and the mortal Iasion. Family Plutus is most commonly the son of Demeter and Iasion, with who ...

'' of

Aristophanes Aristophanes (; ; ) was an Ancient Greece, Ancient Greek Ancient Greek comedy, comic playwright from Classical Athens, Athens. He wrote in total forty plays, of which eleven survive virtually complete today. The majority of his surviving play ...

. The scholiast writes merely that the is a "fetter made of wood", and is the name given to a punishment using it; bad men, therefore, are likewise called . The ''

Suda The ''Suda'' or ''Souda'' (; ; ) is a large 10th-century Byzantine Empire, Byzantine encyclopedia of the History of the Mediterranean region, ancient Mediterranean world, formerly attributed to an author called Soudas () or Souidas (). It is an ...

'', a medieval Byzantine lexicon, offers a further definition under the headword (), stating that it refers to a "bad and ruinous" () form of punishment. Elsewhere, describing , the ''Suda'' appends a fragment of

Claudius Aelianus Claudius Aelianus (; ), commonly Aelian (), born at Praeneste, was a Roman author and teacher of rhetoric who flourished under Septimius Severus and probably outlived Elagabalus, who died in 222. He spoke Greek so fluently that he was called "h ...

recounting a law said to have been in force in the

Cretan Crete ( ; , Modern Greek, Modern: , Ancient Greek, Ancient: ) is the largest and most populous of the Greek islands, the List of islands by area, 88th largest island in the world and the List of islands in the Mediterranean#By area, fifth la ...

city of

Lyctus Lyktos ( Greek: or ) was a city in ancient Crete. During the Classical and Roman periods, it was one of the major settlements on the island. Its ruins are located near the modern-day village of Lyttos in the municipality of Minoa Pediada, ...

: "If someone be so bold and pay no heed to what is in the law, let him be bound to the pillory () next to the town hall for 20 days, doused in honey, naked, and in milk, so that he may be dinner for bees and flies. And when the time has passed, that he be pushed off a cliff, wrapping him in a woman's robe."

Later use of the term

The term's use in the West dates back to the Renaissance humanist Caelius Rhodiginus, who discussed "" in his 1516 ' ("Of Ancient Readings") alongside a Latin translation of the Lyctian law from the ''Suda''. Subsequent authors identified the description with a form of torture involving exposure to insects which the late antique Christian historian

Jerome Jerome (; ; ; – 30 September 420), also known as Jerome of Stridon, was an early Christian presbyter, priest, Confessor of the Faith, confessor, theologian, translator, and historian; he is commonly known as Saint Jerome. He is best known ...

recounted being meted out to past martyrs in his '' vita'' of

Paul of Thebes Paul of Thebes (; , ''Paûlos ho Thēbaîos''; ; c. 227 – c. 341), commonly known as Paul the First Hermit or Paul the Anchorite, was an Egyptian saint regarded as the first Christian hermit and grazer, who was claimed to have lived alone in ...

. This connection would partly obscure the original context of the term: in 1782 the ' defined cyphonism as a form of torture suffered by 3rd-century martyrs, and in 1797 the third edition of the ''

Encyclopaedia Britannica An encyclopedia is a reference work or compendium providing summaries of knowledge, either general or special, in a particular field or discipline. Encyclopedias are divided into article (publishing), articles or entries that are arranged Alp ...

'' pronounced that "the learned are at a loss to determine what yphonismwas", noting only its possible relevance to Jerome's account of Paul.

References

{{reflist, 30em Ancient Greek law Physical restraint Pillories Punishments Torture