''Conocephalum'' is a

genus Genus (; : genera ) is a taxonomic rank above species and below family (taxonomy), family as used in the biological classification of extant taxon, living and fossil organisms as well as Virus classification#ICTV classification, viruses. In bino ...

of complex thalloid

liverworts Liverworts are a group of non-vascular plant, non-vascular embryophyte, land plants forming the division Marchantiophyta (). They may also be referred to as hepatics. Like mosses and hornworts, they have a gametophyte-dominant life cycle, in wh ...

in the

order Order, ORDER or Orders may refer to: * A socio-political or established or existing order, e.g. World order, Ancien Regime, Pax Britannica * Categorization, the process in which ideas and objects are recognized, differentiated, and understood ...

Marchantiales Marchantiales is an order of thallose liverworts (also known as "complex thalloid liverworts") that includes species like '' Marchantia polymorpha'', a widespread plant often found beside rivers, and '' Lunularia cruciata'', a common and often t ...

and is the only extant genus in the

family Family (from ) is a Social group, group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or Affinity (law), affinity (by marriage or other relationship). It forms the basis for social order. Ideally, families offer predictabili ...

Conocephalaceae.AKIYAMA, H. (2022). Morphological and ecological diversification of Conocephalum conicum complex in Japan and Taiwan. ''Humans Nat'', ''32'', 1-45. Some species of ''Conocephalum'' are assigned to the ''Conocephalum conicum'' complex, which includes several

cryptic species In biology, a species complex is a group of closely related organisms that are so similar in appearance and other features that the boundaries between them are often unclear. The taxa in the complex may be able to hybridize readily with each oth ...

. ''Conocephalum'' species are large liverworts with distinct patterns on the upper

thallus Thallus (: thalli), from Latinized Greek (), meaning "a green shoot" or "twig", is the vegetative tissue of some organisms in diverse groups such as algae, fungi, some liverworts, lichens, and the Myxogastria. A thallus usually names the entir ...

, giving the appearance of snakeskin. The species ''Conocephalum conicum'' is named for its cone-shaped reproductive structures, called archegoniophores. Common names include snakeskin liverwort, great scented liverwort and cat-tongue liverwort. Species of ''Conocephalum'' are relatively common and widely distributed throughout North America, Europe and East Asia. ''Conocephalum'' often occurs in moist and shaded habitats and are also found in open woodlands, sandy banks, wet rocks and cliffs and moist soils. Species of ''Conocephalum'' are also often associated with

calcareous Calcareous () is an adjective meaning "mostly or partly composed of calcium carbonate", in other words, containing lime (mineral), lime or being chalky. The term is used in a wide variety of Science, scientific disciplines. In zoology ''Calcare ...

substrates. ''Conocephalum'' has a relatively large thallus with irregular branching. Plants grow by overlapping lobes, often creating large mats. Regarding reproduction, species of ''Conocephalum'' are

dioicous Dioicy () is a sexual system in non-vascular plants where archegonia (female organs) and antheridia (male organs) are produced on separate plants in the gametophyte phase. It is one of the two main sexual systems in bryophytes, the other being ...

. Species of ''Conocephalum'' produce different terpenes and aromatic compounds. Considerable variation in species have been identified based on chemical composition and different species have been identified based on their unique compounds. A unique sesquiterpene alcohol known as conocephalenol was identified and extracted form ''C. conicum.''

Classification and taxonomy

Some species of ''Conocephalum'' are placed in the ''Conocephalum conicum'' complex, which includes several

. Consequently, it has been challenging to identify the exact number of species in this genus. Cryptic species refers to a species which demonstrates a genetic difference but lacks morphological differences. Within liverworts, cryptic species are suggested to be related to both geographical disjunction and to reproductive biology in combination with isolation and habitat differentiation. Molecular research has indicated that ''Conocephalum'' comprises a complex of six cryptic species (A, C, F, J, L and S). In 2005 ''C. conicum'' cryptic species S was described as a separate species, ''C. salebrosum''. ''Conocephalum salebrosum'' has a wider distribution and is present in North America, in contrast to ''C. conicum.'' More recent examinations of the ''Conocephalum conicum'' complex in Japan and Taiwan have identified three new species within ''Conocephalum, C. orientalis, C. purpureorubum'' and ''C. toyotae'', which were formerly described as ''C. conicum'' J, F, and R respectively.

Species

* ''Conocephalum conicum'' complex – includes several cryptic species: ** ''

Conocephalum conicum ''Conocephalum conicum'', also known as the great scented liverwort or snakeskin liverwort, is a liverwort species in the genus ''Conocephalum''. ''C. conicum'' is part of the ''Conocephalum conicum'' complex, which includes several cryptic speci ...

'' ** '' Conocephalum salebrosum'' ** ''Conocephalum orientalis'' ** ''Conocephalum purpureorubum'' ** ''Conocephalum toyotae'' * '' Conocephalum supradecompositum''

Distribution

Species of ''Conocephalum'' are distributed throughout North America, Europe and East Asia. ''Conocephalum salebrosum'' displays the widest distribution and is found throughout North America, Europe and Asia. In North America, ''C. salebrosum'' occurs throughout Canada and parts of the United States and has also been reported from Russia. In contrast to ''C. salebrosum, C. conicum'' is found throughout Europe and has been recorded in Norway, Finland, Great Britain, Ireland, Belgium, France, Germany, Czech Republic, Austria, Hungary, Romania, Italy, Portugal, Spain, Croatia, Bulgaria, Greece, Ukraine, Poland and Russia. The species ''C. supradecompositum'' is more restricted in its distribution and is mainly found in China and Japan. Regarding the most recently described species of ''Conocephalum'', ''C. purpureorubum'' has been observed in Japan, China, Taiwan and South Korea and ''C. orientalis'' has been found in Japan and Taiwan.

Habitat

Species of ''Conocephalum'' often occur in moist and shaded habitats. ''Conocephalum'' species also grow in specialized micro-habitats near both running and standing water. ''Conocephalum conicum'' is often found in open woodlands, sandy banks, wet rocks and cliffs and moist soils. Both ''C. conicum'' and ''C. salebrosum'' are strongly associated with

substrates. It has also been suggested that ''C. salebrosum'' is likely more tolerant of desiccation than ''C. conicum''.Cros, R. M., & Buczkowska, K. (2009). Conocephalum salebrosum (Marchantiopsida) new to Spain. ''Cryptogamie'', ''30''(1), 203.

Morphology

''Conocephalum conicum'' and ''C. salebrosum'' share some similarities in morphological characteristics, in addition to having their own unique traits which help distinguish the two species.

Gametophyte

The vegetative structure of ''Conocephalum'' is a thallus which has the appearance of a flattened body of plant tissue. The thallus is irregularly branched and relatively large, reaching lengths of roughly 20-24 cm. In contrast to ''C. conicum'' and ''C. salebrosum,'' the thallus of ''C. supradecompositum'' is relatively small, measuring 2-3 cm long. The thallus grows by developing lobes which wither away as the plant matures. Plants of ''C. salebrosum'' often grow by overlapping lobes, sometimes creating large mats. Species of ''Conocephalum'' have a thallus that is either dull in appearance, such as ''C. salebrosum'', or distinctly shiny, such as ''C. conicum''. The upper surface of the thallus has characteristic hexagonal outlines formed by shallow grooves around each air chamber. Photosynthetic tissue and chloroplasts are located within the air chambers. In the middle of each air chamber is a white-ringed pore. The upper walls of large air chambers are often visible on the surface of the thallus. The air chamber pore remains open, in contrast to the stomata of

vascular plants Vascular plants (), also called tracheophytes (, ) or collectively tracheophyta (; ), are plants that have lignified tissues (the xylem) for conducting water and minerals throughout the plant. They also have a specialized non-lignified tissue ( ...

where the pores can open and close. The underside of the thallus has both rhizoids and scales. The scales are purple in colour and are arranged along the middle of the underside of the thallus. Rhizoids are also present on the underside of the thallus. There are two types of rhizoids, both long smooth rhizoids and short pegged rhizoids. The short rhizoids are thought to play a role in absorbing water and nutrients. In contrast, the longer rhizoids help anchor the thallus to the underlying substrate. The rhizoids are single-celled, in contrast to the multicellular rhizoids found in

moss Mosses are small, non-vascular plant, non-vascular flowerless plants in the taxonomic phylum, division Bryophyta (, ) ''sensu stricto''. Bryophyta (''sensu lato'', Wilhelm Philippe Schimper, Schimp. 1879) may also refer to the parent group bryo ...

es.

Complex oil bodies

Liverworts cells often contain complex oil bodies. The oil bodies are intracellular

organelles In cell biology, an organelle is a specialized subunit, usually within a cell, that has a specific function. The name ''organelle'' comes from the idea that these structures are parts of cells, as organs are to the body, hence ''organelle,'' th ...

bounded by a single membrane. The oil bodies have been known to contain a variety of unique

phytochemicals Phytochemicals are naturally-occurring chemicals present in or extract, extracted from plants. Some phytochemicals are nutrients for the plant, while others are metabolites produced to enhance plant survivability and reproduction. The field ...

, such as

terpenes Terpenes () are a class of natural products consisting of compounds with the formula (C5H8)n for n ≥ 2. Terpenes are major biosynthetic building blocks. Comprising more than 30,000 compounds, these unsaturated hydrocarbons are produced predomi ...

and

flavonoids Flavonoids (or bioflavonoids; from the Latin word ''flavus'', meaning yellow, their color in nature) are a class of polyphenolic secondary metabolites found in plants, and thus commonly consumed in the diets of humans. Chemically, flavonoids ...

. The function of oil bodies is still poorly understood. It has been suggested that oil bodies might function as a deterrent to

herbivory A herbivore is an animal anatomically and physiologically evolved to feed on plants, especially upon vascular tissues such as foliage, fruits or seeds, as the main component of its diet. These more broadly also encompass animals that eat n ...

or could protect from cold temperatures or harmful

ultraviolet radiation Ultraviolet radiation, also known as simply UV, is electromagnetic radiation of wavelengths of 10–400 nanometers, shorter than that of visible light, but longer than X-rays. UV radiation is present in sunlight and constitutes about 10% of t ...

Sporophyte

The

sporophyte A sporophyte () is one of the two alternation of generations, alternating multicellular organism, multicellular phases in the biological life cycle, life cycles of plants and algae. It is a diploid multicellular organism which produces asexual Spo ...

consists of an unbranched stalk called a seta, which bears a terminal spore capsule called a

sporangium A sporangium (from Late Latin, ; : sporangia) is an enclosure in which spores are formed. It can be composed of a unicellular organism, single cell or can be multicellular organism, multicellular. Virtually all plants, fungus, fungi, and many ot ...

. The sporangia of ''Conocephalum'' are borne beneath stalked

gametophytic A gametophyte () is one of the two alternating multicellular phases in the life cycles of plants and algae. It is a haploid multicellular organism that develops from a haploid spore that has one set of chromosomes. The gametophyte is the sex ...

structures called archegoniophores. In contrast to mosses, the sporophyte matures before the seta elongates. Unlike mosses, liverwort sporophytes lack stomata, a

columella Lucius Junius Moderatus Columella (, Arabic: ) was a prominent Roman writer on agriculture in the Roman Empire. His in twelve volumes has been completely preserved and forms an important source on Roman agriculture and ancient Roman cuisin ...

and peristome teeth.

Life cycle

Cycle_de_reproduction_de_Marchantia_polymorpha

The life cycles of liverworts involves alternating

haploid Ploidy () is the number of complete sets of chromosomes in a cell (biology), cell, and hence the number of possible alleles for Autosome, autosomal and Pseudoautosomal region, pseudoautosomal genes. Here ''sets of chromosomes'' refers to the num ...

gametophyte and

diploid Ploidy () is the number of complete sets of chromosomes in a cell, and hence the number of possible alleles for autosomal and pseudoautosomal genes. Here ''sets of chromosomes'' refers to the number of maternal and paternal chromosome copies, ...

sporophyte generations. The

gametophyte A gametophyte () is one of the two alternating multicellular phases in the life cycles of plants and algae. It is a haploid multicellular organism that develops from a haploid spore that has one set of chromosomes. The gametophyte is the se ...

generation is more dominant, while the sporophyte generation is relatively short-lived. The gametophyte produces haploid

gametes A gamete ( ) is a haploid cell that fuses with another haploid cell during fertilization in organisms that reproduce sexually. Gametes are an organism's reproductive cells, also referred to as sex cells. The name gamete was introduced by the Ge ...

egg An egg is an organic vessel grown by an animal to carry a possibly fertilized egg cell (a zygote) and to incubate from it an embryo within the egg until the embryo has become an animal fetus that can survive on its own, at which point the ...

and

sperm Sperm (: sperm or sperms) is the male reproductive Cell (biology), cell, or gamete, in anisogamous forms of sexual reproduction (forms in which there is a larger, female reproductive cell and a smaller, male one). Animals produce motile sperm ...

, which fuse to form a diploid

zygote A zygote (; , ) is a eukaryote, eukaryotic cell (biology), cell formed by a fertilization event between two gametes. The zygote's genome is a combination of the DNA in each gamete, and contains all of the genetic information of a new individ ...

. The zygote then develops into a sporophyte which ultimately produces haploid

spores In biology, a spore is a unit of sexual (in fungi) or asexual reproduction that may be adapted for dispersal and for survival, often for extended periods of time, in unfavourable conditions. Spores form part of the life cycles of many plant ...

through

meiosis Meiosis () is a special type of cell division of germ cells in sexually-reproducing organisms that produces the gametes, the sperm or egg cells. It involves two rounds of division that ultimately result in four cells, each with only one c ...

. The sporophyte requires nutrients supplied by the gametophyte to sustain growth and development. The life cycle of ''Marchantia'' liverworts also applies to ''Conocephalum'', with the exception that ''Conocephalum'' lacks a stalked antheridiophore and instead has small flat antheridial heads on the surface of the thallus.

Reproduction

Liverworts reproduce through both sexual and

asexual reproduction Asexual reproduction is a type of reproduction that does not involve the fusion of gametes or change in the number of chromosomes. The offspring that arise by asexual reproduction from either unicellular or multicellular organisms inherit the f ...

. In natural populations, the high genetic variation observed suggests that sexual reproduction might dominate. Species of ''Conocephalum'' are

, meaning that the male and female reproductive structures are produced on separate plants.

Sexual reproduction

In ''Conocephalum'' the male and female reproductive parts are embedded in receptacles on separate plants. On male plants, the receptacle is slightly raised, lacking a stalk, and often circular or oval shaped. Antheridia are embedded in the receptacle and at maturity the sperm is released into the air. In contrast, on female plants the receptacles are dome-shaped, with several drooping lobes at the end of an erect stalk. The receptacles are often described as a tiny umbrella, with the archegonia beneath. Gametophytes produce eggs and sperm in the archegonia and antheridia, respectively.

Fertilization Fertilisation or fertilization (see American and British English spelling differences#-ise, -ize (-isation, -ization), spelling differences), also known as generative fertilisation, syngamy and impregnation, is the fusion of gametes to give ...

occurs when the sperm reach the egg within the archegonia of a female plant. Once fertilization occurs, the

ovule In seed plants, the ovule is the structure that gives rise to and contains the female reproductive cells. It consists of three parts: the ''integument'', forming its outer layer, the ''nucellus'' (or remnant of the sporangium, megasporangium), ...

within an archegonium develops into a sporophyte. Mature sporangia on the underside of the receptacle resemble black capsules. These capsules split open to release both spores and elaters, which are dispersed mainly by wind. The elaters function to propel spores during dispersal. ''Conocephalum'' elaters are unique and display a wide range of variability in shape, size and number. Often the abundance of elaters within a capsule are 2-3 times more abundant than spores. Elaters form from an initial mother cell which develops into a diploid cell with spiral thickenings. In contrast, spores develop from an initial diploid mother cell that ultimately forms haploid spores by meiosis.

Asexual reproduction

The production of gemmae is a common method of asexual reproduction in liverworts. Gemmae are small packets of tissue consisting of haploid cells that are genetically identical with those of the parent plant. They are dispersed by rainfall and ultimately grow into new individuals. In ''C. conicum'', gemmae are located on the lower layers of the thallus and are released as the thallus degrades. In contrast, ''C. salebrosum'' does not produce gemmae. Vegetative reproduction can occur when a piece of the thallus breaks off and is transported away from the parent plant. The individuals resulting from vegetative reproduction are genetically identical to the parent plant and therefore clonal colonies often exist as either all male or all female. ''Conocephalum'' species are

perennial In horticulture, the term perennial ('' per-'' + '' -ennial'', "through the year") is used to differentiate a plant from shorter-lived annuals and biennials. It has thus been defined as a plant that lives more than 2 years. The term is also ...

, meaning that they can overwinter and produce new growth in the spring. These new buds are covered and protected by small scales.

Biochemistry

Many liverworts produce different terpenes and aromatic compounds. Terpenoids and aromatic compounds are often accumulated within the oil bodies of many liverworts, including ''Conocephalum''. Within ''Conocephalum,'' considerable variation in species have been identified based on chemical composition and these compounds been used to identify different cryptic species. Three different groups of ''Conocephalum'' were identified baed on their unique primary volatile compounds. For example, the compound cubebol, a

sesquiterpene Sesquiterpenes are a class of terpenes that consist of three isoprene units and often have the molecular formula C15H24. Like monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes may be cyclic or contain rings, including many combinations. Biochemical modifications s ...

alcohol Alcohol may refer to: Common uses * Alcohol (chemistry), a class of compounds * Ethanol, one of several alcohols, commonly known as alcohol in everyday life ** Alcohol (drug), intoxicant found in alcoholic beverages ** Alcoholic beverage, an alco ...

, is characteristic of ''C. salebrosum.'' It has also been noted that ''C. supradecompositum'' has a distinct chemical composition compared to ''C. conicum'' as well, mainly that the Monoterpenoid content in ''C. supradecompositum'' is much less than observed in ''C. conicum.'' A unique sesquiterpene alcohol known as conocephalenol was identified and extracted from ''C. conicum.'' Conocephalenol has a unique chemical skeleton that is characteristic of a sesquiterpenes present in

red algae Red algae, or Rhodophyta (, ; ), make up one of the oldest groups of eukaryotic algae. The Rhodophyta comprises one of the largest Phylum, phyla of algae, containing over 7,000 recognized species within over 900 Genus, genera amidst ongoing taxon ...

Associations with other species

Fungal interactions

''Conocephalum'' can form associations with

fungi A fungus (: fungi , , , or ; or funguses) is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and mold (fungus), molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as one ...

that are similar to the

mycorrhizal A mycorrhiza (; , mycorrhiza, or mycorrhizas) is a symbiotic association between a fungus and a plant. The term mycorrhiza refers to the role of the fungus in the plant's rhizosphere, the plant root system and its surroundings. Mycorrhizae play ...

associations observed

. Molecular analyses demonstrated that ''Conocephalum'' contained fungal endophytes from the group of fungi known as the

Glomeromycota Glomeromycota (often referred to as glomeromycetes, as they include only one class, Glomeromycetes) are one of eight currently recognized division (mycology), divisions within the Kingdom (biology), kingdom Fungi, with approximately 230 describ ...

. ''Conocephalum conicum'' often colonizes bare soils or rocky substrates, where mineral nutrients can often be limiting. The fungal endophyte establishes a complex relationship with ''C. conicum,'' which is characterized by the formation of arbuscules. These fungi form a highly branched

mycelium Mycelium (: mycelia) is a root-like structure of a fungus consisting of a mass of branching, thread-like hyphae. Its normal form is that of branched, slender, entangled, anastomosing, hyaline threads. Fungal colonies composed of mycelium are fo ...

outside of the plant which then colonize the outside of the rhizoids and pass into the gametophyte. The fungal infection induces grown of fungal

hypha A hypha (; ) is a long, branching, filamentous structure of a fungus, oomycete, or actinobacterium. In most fungi, hyphae are the main mode of vegetative growth, and are collectively called a mycelium. Structure A hypha consists of one o ...

within the host cells of ''C. conicum.'' This association of the fungal hypha with the hosts plastids suggests that photosynthates produced through

photosynthesis Photosynthesis ( ) is a system of biological processes by which photosynthetic organisms, such as most plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, convert light energy, typically from sunlight, into the chemical energy necessary to fuel their metabo ...

in ''C. conicum'' are likely transferred to the fungus. A similar situation regarding this fungal association has also been identified in the thalloid liverwort '' Pellia epiphylla''. Although these associations are common in vascular plants, they have rarely been described in non-vascular plants.

Animal interactions

Herbivory

Approximately 25 species of

moths Moths are a group of insects that includes all members of the order Lepidoptera that are not butterflies. They were previously classified as suborder Heterocera, but the group is paraphyletic with respect to butterflies (suborder Rhopalocera) a ...

which are

endemic Endemism is the state of a species being found only in a single defined geographic location, such as an island, state, nation, country or other defined zone; organisms that are indigenous to a place are not endemic to it if they are also foun ...

to East Asia associate exclusively with ''Conocephalum.'' The larval stage of '' Epimartyria pardella'' moths feed on ''C. conicum''. In addition, the fungal species ''Loreleia marchantiae'' also feeds on ''C. conicum.''

Pathogens

The fungal

pathogen In biology, a pathogen (, "suffering", "passion" and , "producer of"), in the oldest and broadest sense, is any organism or agent that can produce disease. A pathogen may also be referred to as an infectious agent, or simply a Germ theory of d ...

belonging to the genus ''Pythium'' has often been isolated from infected rhizoids and thallus of ''Conocephalum.'' ''Bryoscyphus conocephali'' is another fungal pathogen that has been associated with ''C. conicum.''

Human applications

''Conocephalum'' as a bioindicator for pollution

''Conocephalum conicum'' has been identified as being tolerant of

heavy metals upright=1.2, Crystals of lead.html" ;"title="osmium, a heavy metal nearly twice as dense as lead">osmium, a heavy metal nearly twice as dense as lead Heavy metals is a controversial and ambiguous term for metallic elements with relatively h ...

and has therefore been suggested to have a possible role as a

bioindicator A bioindicator is any species (an indicator species) or group of species whose function, population, or status can reveal the qualitative status of the environment. The most common indicator species are animals. For example, copepods and other sma ...

for

pollution Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause harm. Pollution can take the form of any substance (solid, liquid, or gas) or energy (such as radioactivity, heat, sound, or light). Pollutants, the component ...

. ''Conocephalum conicum'' takes up

ion An ion () is an atom or molecule with a net electrical charge. The charge of an electron is considered to be negative by convention and this charge is equal and opposite to the charge of a proton, which is considered to be positive by convent ...

s from both the soil and the atmosphere. Therefore, heavy metals contamination of ''C. conicum'' is related not only to air pollution, but environmental contamination from different sources. Recent research has also examined ''C. conicum'' as a bioindicator for

cadmium Cadmium is a chemical element; it has chemical symbol, symbol Cd and atomic number 48. This soft, silvery-white metal is chemically similar to the two other stable metals in group 12 element, group 12, zinc and mercury (element), mercury. Like z ...

pollution. Cadmium a toxic

metal A metal () is a material that, when polished or fractured, shows a lustrous appearance, and conducts electrical resistivity and conductivity, electricity and thermal conductivity, heat relatively well. These properties are all associated wit ...

and considered the third highest contaminant, after mercury and

lead Lead () is a chemical element; it has Chemical symbol, symbol Pb (from Latin ) and atomic number 82. It is a Heavy metal (elements), heavy metal that is density, denser than most common materials. Lead is Mohs scale, soft and Ductility, malleabl ...

. ''Conocephalum conicum'' was shown to respond to cadmium stress by changing its biological activity. These biological changes could be used as

biomarkers In biomedical contexts, a biomarker, or biological marker, is a measurable indicator of some biological state or condition. Biomarkers are often measured and evaluated using blood, urine, or soft tissues to examine normal biological processes, p ...

for cadmium pollution.

Anti-fungal activity

''Conocephalum conicum'' has been suggested to have a possible role in the management of food borne disease caused by species of ''

Aspergillus ' () is a genus consisting of several hundred mold species found in various climates worldwide. ''Aspergillus'' was first catalogued in 1729 by the Italian priest and biologist Pier Antonio Micheli. Viewing the fungi under a microscope, Miche ...

'' fungi. ''Aspergillus'' produces highly potent

toxins A toxin is a naturally occurring poison produced by metabolic activities of living cells or organisms. They occur especially as proteins, often conjugated. The term was first used by organic chemist Ludwig Brieger (1849–1919), derived ...

carcinogens A carcinogen () is any agent that promotes the development of cancer. Carcinogens can include synthetic chemicals, naturally occurring substances, physical agents such as ionizing and non-ionizing radiation, and biologic agents such as viruse ...

, referred to as aflatoxins. Aflatoxins are harmful both plants and animals. ''Aspergillus'' can cause disease in many important

crops A crop is a plant that can be grown and harvested extensively for profit or subsistence. In other words, a crop is a plant or plant product that is grown for a specific purpose such as food, fibre, or fuel. When plants of the same species a ...

, which can ultimately cause disease in humans. ''Conocephalum'' has been shown to have a variety of bioactive compounds which promote anti-fungal property against ''Aspergillus''.

Ethnomedicine

Throughout North America, China and India, liverworts such as ''Conocephalum'' have been used for ethnomedical purposes. ''Conocephalum'' is known to be important to Bhotia, Raji, Tharus and Boxas tribes in

Pithoragarh Pithoragarh ( Kumaoni: ''Pithor'garh'') is a Himalayan town with a Municipal corporation in Pithoragarh district in the Indian state of Uttarakhand. It is the largest hill town in Uttarakhand. Etymology "The district is named after its hea ...

district of Kumaon Himalaya. ''Conocephalum conicum'' is used to treat burns, and the extract of ''C. conicum'' is also used in treating

gallstones A gallstone is a stone formed within the gallbladder from precipitated bile components. The term cholelithiasis may refer to the presence of gallstones or to any disease caused by gallstones, and choledocholithiasis refers to the presence of ...

. ''Conocephalum'' has also demonstrated

antidote An antidote is a substance that can counteract a form of poisoning. The term ultimately derives from the Greek term φάρμακον ἀντίδοτον ''(pharmakon antidoton)'', "(medicine) given as a remedy". An older term in English which is ...

activity against

venomous Venom or zootoxin is a type of toxin produced by an animal that is actively delivered through a wound by means of a bite, sting, or similar action. The toxin is delivered through a specially evolved ''venom apparatus'', such as fangs or a sti ...

snake bites A snakebite is an injury caused by the bite of a snake, especially a venomous snake. A common sign of a bite from a venomous snake is the presence of two puncture wounds from the animal's fangs. Sometimes venom injection from the bite may oc ...

. The role of ''Conocephalum'' regarding modern medicine has yet to be investigated.

Cosmetic industry

Liverworts often contain highly

pungent Pungency ( ) is the taste of food commonly referred to as spiciness, hotness or heat, found in foods such as chili peppers. Highly pungent tastes may be experienced as unpleasant. The term piquancy ( ) is sometimes applied to foods with a lower ...

compounds. ''Conocephalum'' species often exude an

odour An odor (American English) or odour (English in the Commonwealth of Nations, Commonwealth English; American and British English spelling differences#-our, -or, see spelling differences) is a smell or a scent caused by one or more volatilized ...

that is characteristic of

turpentine Turpentine (which is also called spirit of turpentine, oil of turpentine, terebenthine, terebenthene, terebinthine and, colloquially, turps) is a fluid obtainable by the distillation of resin harvested from living trees, mainly pines. Principall ...

. The odour is thought to be related to the presence of monoterpenoids. The compound conocephalenol is widely used in the

cosmetic industry The cosmetic industry describes the industry that manufactures and distributes cosmetic products. These include colour cosmetics, like foundation and mascara, skincare such as moisturisers and cleansers, haircare such as shampoos, conditioners a ...

for its odourant properties.

Photo gallery

File:Conocephalum conicum (g, 145025-474547) 6046.JPG, ''Conocephalum conicum,'' the thallus is distinctly shiny File:Conocephalum salebrosum (a, 145855-475042) 7776.JPG, ''Conocephalum salebrosum,'' the thallus is dull in appearance File:Conocephalum conicum (e, 144739-474742) 1022.jpg, ''Conocephalum conicum,'' thallus File:Liverwort - Flickr - treegrow (1).jpg, ''Conocephalum conicum,'' air pores visible on the upper surface of the thallus File:Conocephalum salebrosum (a, 145855-475042) 7808.JPG, ''Conocephalum salebrosum,'' thallus cross section showing photosynthetic cells File:Conocephalum salebrosum (a, 145855-475042) 7810.JPG, ''Conocephalum salebrosum,'' thallus cross section showing photosynthetic cells File:Conocephalum salebrosum (a, 145855-475042) 7806.JPG, ''Conocephalum conicum'', air pore present in the upper surface of the thallus File:Conocephalum conicum (c, 144707-474823) 1912.jpg, ''Conocephalum conicum'', sporophytes (black) hanging beneath the umbrella-shaped, stalked archegoniophores File:Conocephalum salebrosum (b, 142632-474029) 4442.JPG, ''Conocephalum salebrosum'', sporophytes (black) hanging beneath the umbrella-shaped, stalked archegoniophores File:Conocephalum conicum (f, 145046-474908) 3102.JPG, ''Conocephalum conicum'', sporophytes (black) hanging beneath the archegoniophores File:Conocephalum conicum jagoke03.jpg, ''Conocephalum conicum,'' antheridium File:Conocephalum salebrosum (b, 142632-474029) 4502.JPG, ''Conocephalum salebrosum,'' spores and elaters File:Conocephalum salebrosum (b, 142632-474029) 4504.JPG, ''Conocephalum salebrosum,'' spores and elaters File:Conocephalum salebrosum (b, 142632-474029) 4496.JPG, ''Conocephalum salebrosum,'' ir pore present in the upper surface of the thallus

References

{{Taxonbar, from1=Q5162101, from2=Q17118357 Marchantiales Marchantiales genera