Congo–Arab War
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The Congo Arab war was a
colonial war Colonial war (in some contexts referred to as small war) is a blanket term relating to the various conflicts that arose as the result of overseas territories being settled by foreign powers creating a colony. The term especially refers to wa ...
between the
Congo Free State The Congo Free State, also known as the Independent State of the Congo (), was a large Sovereign state, state and absolute monarchy in Central Africa from 1885 to 1908. It was privately owned by Leopold II of Belgium, King Leopold II, the const ...
and Arab-Swahili warlords associated with the
Indian Ocean slave trade The Indian Ocean slave trade, sometimes known as the East African slave trade, involved the capture and transportation of predominately sub-Saharan African slaves along the coasts, such as the Swahili Coast and the Horn of Africa, and through ...
in the eastern regions of the
Congo Basin The Congo Basin () is the sedimentary basin of the Congo River. The Congo Basin is located in Central Africa, in a region known as west equatorial Africa. The Congo Basin region is sometimes known simply as the Congo. It contains some of the larg ...
between 1892 and 1894. The war was caused by the Free State and the Arabs contending for the control of regional resources.Edgerton, p. 85 The war ended in January 1894 with a victory of Leopold's ''
Force Publique The ''Force Publique'' (, "Public Force"; ) was the military of the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo from 1885 to 1960. It was established after Belgian Army officers travelled to the Free State to found an armed force in the colony on L ...
''. Initially, the Free State collaborated with the Arabs. Still, competition struck over the control of
ivory Ivory is a hard, white material from the tusks (traditionally from elephants) and Tooth, teeth of animals, that consists mainly of dentine, one of the physical structures of teeth and tusks. The chemical structure of the teeth and tusks of mamm ...
and the topic of the humanitarian pledges given by Leopold II, King-Sovereign of the Congo Free State, to the
Berlin Conference The Berlin Conference of 1884–1885 was a meeting of colonial powers that concluded with the signing of the General Act of Berlin,
to end slavery. Leopold II's stance turned confrontational against his once-allies.Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja: ''The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History'', 2002,
page 21
The war against the Swahili-Arab economic and political power was presented as a
Christian A Christian () is a person who follows or adheres to Christianity, a Monotheism, monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus in Christianity, Jesus Christ. Christians form the largest religious community in the wo ...
anti-slavery Abolitionism, or the abolitionist movement, is the political movement to end slavery and liberate enslaved individuals around the world. The first country to fully outlaw slavery was France in 1315, but it was later used in its colonies. T ...
crusade.


Prelude

In 1886, while
Tippu Tip Tippu Tip, or Tippu Tib (– June 14, 1905), real name Ḥamad ibn Muḥammad ibn Jumʿah ibn Rajab ibn Muḥammad ibn Saʿīd al Murjabī (), was an Afro-Omani ivory and slave owner and trader, explorer, governor and plantation owner. He ...
was in Zanzibar, a dispute arose between Tippu Tip's fort at Stanley Falls (modern-day Boyoma Falls) and a smaller, nearby Congo Free State fort led by Walter Deane and Lieutenant Dubois. Tip's men at the Stanley Falls fort alleged that Deane had stolen an enslaved woman from an Arab officer, but Deane asserted that the girl had fled after being badly beaten by her master, and that he had only offered her refuge. Tippu Tip's men attacked the fort which was defended by the two officers, eighty
Nigerian Nigerians or the Nigerian people are citizens of Nigeria or people with ancestry from Nigeria. The name Nigeria was derived from the Niger River running through the country. This name was allegedly coined in the late 19th century by British jo ...
Hausas and sixty local
militia A militia ( ) is a military or paramilitary force that comprises civilian members, as opposed to a professional standing army of regular, full-time military personnel. Militias may be raised in times of need to support regular troops or se ...
men — and after a four-day siege, the defenders ran out of ammunition and fled, abandoning the fort.Edgerton, p. 94 The Free State did not
counterattack A counterattack is a tactic employed in response to an attack, with the term originating in "Military exercise, war games". The general objective is to negate or thwart the advantage gained by the enemy during attack, while the specific objecti ...
, and Tippu Tip began to move more men into the Congo, including several Arab slaver captains and some Congolese leaders, e.g.
Ngongo Lutete Ngongo Lutete (or Gongo Lutete or Ngongo Leteta) was a Songye leader and chieftain during the late 19th century. Biography As a boy Ngongo Lutete was enslaved by Arabs, but after winning his freedom he became a respected leader of the Watetera & ...
. Initially, Congo Free State's authority was relatively weak in Congo's eastern regions. In early 1887,
Henry Morton Stanley Sir Henry Morton Stanley (born John Rowlands; 28 January 1841 – 10 May 1904) was a Welsh-American explorer, journalist, soldier, colonial administrator, author, and politician famous for his exploration of Central Africa and search for missi ...
arrived in
Zanzibar Zanzibar is a Tanzanian archipelago off the coast of East Africa. It is located in the Indian Ocean, and consists of many small Island, islands and two large ones: Unguja (the main island, referred to informally as Zanzibar) and Pemba Island. ...
and proposed that ''Tippu Tip'' (
nom de guerre A ''nom de guerre'' (, 'war name') is a pseudonym chosen by someone to use when they are involved in a particular activity, especially fighting in a war. In Ancien régime, ''ancien régime'' Kingdom of France, France it would be adopted by each n ...
— his real name was Hamad bin Muhammad bin Juma bin Rajab el Murjebi) be made
governor A governor is an politician, administrative leader and head of a polity or Region#Political regions, political region, in some cases, such as governor-general, governors-general, as the head of a state's official representative. Depending on the ...
(''wali'') of the
Stanley Falls District Stanley Falls District (, ) was a district of the Congo Free State. It covered most of the eastern part of the colony along the Congo River south from Stanleyville (present-day Kisangani). Location The explorer Henry Morton Stanley visited the a ...
in the
Congo Free State The Congo Free State, also known as the Independent State of the Congo (), was a large Sovereign state, state and absolute monarchy in Central Africa from 1885 to 1908. It was privately owned by Leopold II of Belgium, King Leopold II, the const ...
. Both Leopold II and Barghash bin Said agreed. On February 24, 1887, Tippu Tip accepted. Tippu Tip agreed to submit to Congo Free State's authority and to allow a Congo Free State
Resident Resident may refer to: People and functions * Resident minister, a representative of a government in a foreign country * Resident (medicine), a stage of postgraduate medical training * Resident (pharmacy), a stage of postgraduate pharmaceut ...
by his side to help him govern this territory in a system of
indirect rule Indirect rule was a system of public administration, governance used by imperial powers to control parts of their empires. This was particularly used by colonial empires like the British Empire to control their possessions in Colonisation of Afri ...
which was patterned after those employed by other
European colonial powers European, or Europeans, may refer to: In general * ''European'', an adjective referring to something of, from, or related to Europe ** Ethnic groups in Europe ** Demographics of Europe ** European cuisine, the cuisines of Europe and other West ...
in Africa and
Asia Asia ( , ) is the largest continent in the world by both land area and population. It covers an area of more than 44 million square kilometres, about 30% of Earth's total land area and 8% of Earth's total surface area. The continent, which ...
. The territory borders were the
Aruwimi The Aruwimi River (, ) is a tributary of the Congo River, located to the north and east of the Congo.Stanley, H.M., 1899, Through the Dark Continent, London: G. Newnes, Vol. One , Vol. Two The Aruwimi begins as the Ituri River, which rises near ...
and the Lualaba rivers. Additionally, Tippu Tip was to redirect his ivory trade through the Congo Free State, to the
Atlantic Ocean The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of the world's five borders of the oceans, oceanic divisions, with an area of about . It covers approximately 17% of Earth#Surface, Earth's surface and about 24% of its water surface area. During the ...
ports and he was to assist King Leopold II ‘s forces in their expeditions to the Upper Nile, to help further expand his territories. Soon after this deal, it became apparent that Tippu Tip was not inclined to accept Congo Free State authority and considered himself more of a
vassal A vassal or liege subject is a person regarded as having a mutual obligation to a lord or monarch, in the context of the feudal system in medieval Europe. While the subordinate party is called a vassal, the dominant party is called a suzerain ...
than a state official, allowed to do as he pleased, within certain boundaries. Furthermore, Tippu Tip did not have absolute authority over the eastern Congo region, but was considered as a ''
primus inter pares is a Latin phrase meaning first among equals. It is typically used as an honorary title for someone who is formally equal to other members of their group but is accorded unofficial respect, traditionally owing to their seniority in office. H ...
''. Other major slave traders like
Lake Tanganyika Lake Tanganyika ( ; ) is an African Great Lakes, African Great Lake. It is the world's List of lakes by volume, second-largest freshwater lake by volume and the List of lakes by depth, second deepest, in both cases after Lake Baikal in Siberia. ...
's
strongman Strongman is a competitive strength sport which tests athletes' physical strength and endurance through a variety of heavy lifts and events. Strongman competitions are known for their intensity, pushing athletes to their physical and mental limit ...
Rumaliza Muhammad bin Khalfan bin Khamis al-Barwani () (born c. 1850, died 1919), commonly known as Rumaliza, was an Omani Swahili trader of slaves and ivory, active in Central and East Africa in the latter part of the nineteenth century. He was a member of ...
considered his deal with the Congo Free State treasonous. Rumaliza abolished the Congo Free State flag and swore loyalty to the Zanzibar sultan's red flag. Leopold II was heavily criticized in European public opinion for his dealings with Tippu Tip. In Belgium, the
Belgian Anti-Slavery Society The Belgian Anti-Slavery Society (, {{langx, nl, Antislavernijmaatschappij van België) was a 19th-century organization, with the goal of putting an end to the Indian Ocean slave trade in the African continent. The ''Belgian Anti-Slavery Society'' ...
, founded in
1888 Events January * January 3 – The great telescope (with an objective lens of diameter) at Lick Observatory in California is first used. * January 12 – The Schoolhouse Blizzard hits Dakota Territory and the states of Montana, M ...
, mainly by Roman Catholic intellectuals led by Count
Hippolyte d'Ursel Count Marie Hippolyte Adrien Ludovic d'Ursel (Brussels, 17 November 1850 – 9 December 1937) was a Belgium, Belgian politician and historian. Family A cadet (genealogy), cadet member of the Ursel family, he was a grandson of Charles-Joseph, 4th ...
, aimed to abolish the
East African slave trade The Indian Ocean slave trade, sometimes known as the East African slave trade, involved the capture and transportation of predominately slavery in Africa, sub-Saharan African slaves along the coasts, such as the Swahili Coast and the Horn of Afri ...
. Free State authorities stringently adhered to the provisions of the
Brussels Conference Act of 1890 Brussels, officially the Brussels-Capital Region, (All text and all but one graphic show the English name as Brussels-Capital Region.) is a region of Belgium comprising 19 municipalities, including the City of Brussels, which is the capital ...
which prohibited the trade of breechloading firearms and ammunition in "tropical" parts of Africa. In May or June 1890, Tippu Tip left Maniema and returned to Zanzibar, leaving his son,
Sefu bin Hamid Sefu bin Hamid or Sayf bin Hamed (1850 – 20 October 1893) was an Arabs, Arab Zanzibari slave trader and administrative official. The son of Tippu Tip, he was killed while fighting in the Congo–Arab war. Governor of the Stanley Falls Distri ...
, in charge of most of his territory from the governing seat of
Kasongo Kasongo, also known as Piani Kasongo, is a town and territory in the Maniema Province in the east of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Geography Kasongo lies east of the Lualaba River, northwest of where it meets the Luama River, at an a ...
, and his nephew, Rashid bin Mohammad, in charge of Stanley Falls.


Course of the war

In March and April 1892, Tippu Tip's son
Sefu bin Hamid Sefu bin Hamid or Sayf bin Hamed (1850 – 20 October 1893) was an Arabs, Arab Zanzibari slave trader and administrative official. The son of Tippu Tip, he was killed while fighting in the Congo–Arab war. Governor of the Stanley Falls Distri ...
began attacking Congo Free State personnel in eastern Congo, including ivory trader Arthur Hodister—sent by the Syndicat Commercial du Katanga to 'acquire' ivory—and Captain Guillaume Van Kerckhoven, who had been forcefully confiscating ivory from several powerful Arab traders.Edgerton, p. 99 These expeditions united regional slave and ivory traders to fight their common enemy, the Congo Free State. ''
The Times ''The Times'' is a British Newspaper#Daily, daily Newspaper#National, national newspaper based in London. It began in 1785 under the title ''The Daily Universal Register'', adopting its modern name on 1 January 1788. ''The Times'' and its si ...
'' reported in 1892 that, during further explorations in the Congo, Hodister was captured and killed, his head stuck on a pole. Relations were further strained when Rashid refused to assist in the investigation of Hodister's death.
Ngongo Lutete Ngongo Lutete (or Gongo Lutete or Ngongo Leteta) was a Songye leader and chieftain during the late 19th century. Biography As a boy Ngongo Lutete was enslaved by Arabs, but after winning his freedom he became a respected leader of the Watetera & ...
also led actions in the east at this time.


Initial hostilities

The Force Publique, under
Francis Dhanis Baron Francis Ernest Joseph Marie Dhanis (11 March 1861 – 13 November 1909) was a Belgian colonial civil servant and soldier noted for his service for the Congo Free State during the Congo Arab War and Batetela Rebellion. Early life and ...
, was sent to Katanga to resupply the Lofoi trading post, establishing new outposts on his path. During this mission, the Force Publique crossed paths with Ngongo Lutete's soldiers. Lutete had been captured by Tippu Tip as a boy; after winning his freedom, he became the leader of the
Batetela The indigenous people within the Kasai Basin up to Maniema understood themselves to be descendants of "AnKutshu Membele", then in the 20th century many accepted the colonially imposed category and term Tetela (or Batetela in the plural). "Batet ...
and Bakusu. Lutete's forces were heading west to Kasaï, picking up weapons from
Angola Angola, officially the Republic of Angola, is a country on the west-Central Africa, central coast of Southern Africa. It is the second-largest Portuguese-speaking world, Portuguese-speaking (Lusophone) country in both total area and List of c ...
in an attempt to strengthen their position in the Lomani region. After several skirmishes in April–May 1892 with the better equipped Free State forces of Dhanis and Michaux, Lutete decided to make a deal with the Congo Free State. On 19 September, he switched sides and joined the
Force Publique The ''Force Publique'' (, "Public Force"; ) was the military of the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo from 1885 to 1960. It was established after Belgian Army officers travelled to the Free State to found an armed force in the colony on L ...
– other native leaders like Pania Mutomba before him and Lupungu, chief of the Songe at
Kabinda Kabinda is the capital Cities of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, city of Lomami Province in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Projected to be the second fastest growing African continent city between 2020 and 2025, with a 6.37% growt ...
shortly thereafter, had also joined the Force Publique.


Maniema campaign

By October 1892, Sefu was leading a force of 10,000 men (some 500 Zanzibari officers, the rest Congolese). The
Force Publique The ''Force Publique'' (, "Public Force"; ) was the military of the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo from 1885 to 1960. It was established after Belgian Army officers travelled to the Free State to found an armed force in the colony on L ...
army led by Francis Dhanis, consisted of a few dozen Belgian officers and several thousand African auxiliaries.Cyclopedia, p. 190 Open warfare broke out in late November 1892, when Sefu set up a fort on the
Lomami River The Lomami River (, , ) is a major tributary of the Congo River in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The river is approximately long. It flows north, west of and parallel to the upper Congo. The Lomami rises in the south of the country, near ...
, where the Force Publique attacked him and eventually was forced to retreat. Dhanis used this battle as a pretext for advancing against the Arabs in force. He allowed his army to travel with all of their wives, slaves, and servants, who did all of the army's cooking and cleaning and acted as a supply train. In addition, he did not allow his men to harm local non-combatants, earning him the goodwill of the local people.Edgerton, p. 100


Rumaliza campaign

By this time, the Congo Free State gained military strength in the region and became less tolerant of "Arab" strongmen, determined to stamp them out. The Congo Free State forces under
Francis Dhanis Baron Francis Ernest Joseph Marie Dhanis (11 March 1861 – 13 November 1909) was a Belgian colonial civil servant and soldier noted for his service for the Congo Free State during the Congo Arab War and Batetela Rebellion. Early life and ...
launched a new campaign against the slave traders in 1892, and Rumaliza was one of the main targets. By 1892, the Swahili slave and ivory trader
Rumaliza Muhammad bin Khalfan bin Khamis al-Barwani () (born c. 1850, died 1919), commonly known as Rumaliza, was an Omani Swahili trader of slaves and ivory, active in Central and East Africa in the latter part of the nineteenth century. He was a member of ...
dominated Tanganyika from his base at
Ujiji Ujiji is the oldest town in western Tanzania and is located in Kigoma-Ujiji District of Kigoma Region. Originally a Swahili settlement and then an Arab slave trading post by the mid-nineteenth century nominally under the Sultanate of Zanziba ...
on the old slave route that led from Stanley Falls up the
Lualaba River The Lualaba River (, , ) flows entirely within the eastern part of Democratic Republic of the Congo. It provides the greatest streamflow to the Congo River, while the River source, source of the Congo is recognized as the Chambeshi River, Chambeshi ...
to
Nyangwe Nyangwe is a town on the right bank of the Lualaba River, in the Maniema Province in the east of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (territory of Kasongo). In the second half of the 19th century, it was an important Swahili–Arab hub for tra ...
, east to Lake Tanganyika and then via
Tabora Tabora is the capital of Tanzania's Tabora Region and is classified as a municipality by the Tanzanian government. It is also the administrative seat of Tabora Urban District. According to the 2012 census, the district had a population of 226, ...
to
Bagamoyo Bagamoyo (''Mji wa Bagamoyo'', in Swahili) is a historic coastal town and capital of Bagamoyo District in the Pwani Region of Tanzania. Much of the settlement was founded at the end of the 18th century, though it is an extension of a much old ...
opposite Zanzibar. The total number of
Swahili Swahili may refer to: * Swahili language, a Bantu language officially used in Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda and widely spoken in the African Great Lakes. * Swahili people, an ethnic group in East Africa. * Swahili culture, the culture of the Swahili p ...
fighters in this huge region numbered around 100,000, but each chief acted independently from the main body. Although experienced in warfare, they were poorly armed with simple rifles. The Belgians had just 600 troops divided between the
Basoko Basoko is a town on the Congo River in the Tshopo Province of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. As of 2009 it had an estimated population of 47,970. Climate Notable people *George Grenfell George Grenfell (21 August 1849, in Sancre ...
and
Lusambo Lusambo () is the capital Cities of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, city of Sankuru province, Democratic Republic of the Congo. The town lies north of the confluence of the Sankuru River and the Lubi River. Lusambo is served by Lusambo Airp ...
camps, but were much better armed and had six cannons and a machine gun. In the previous years (1886-1891), the
Society of Missionaries of Africa The White Fathers (), officially known as the Missionaries of Africa (), and abbreviated MAfr, are a Catholic Church, Roman Catholic society of apostolic life of pontifical right (for men). They were founded in 1868 by Charles Lavigerie, Charles- ...
founded Catholic missions at the north and south ends of
Lake Tanganyika Lake Tanganyika ( ; ) is an African Great Lakes, African Great Lake. It is the world's List of lakes by volume, second-largest freshwater lake by volume and the List of lakes by depth, second deepest, in both cases after Lake Baikal in Siberia. ...
.
Léopold Louis Joubert Léopold Louis Joubert (or Ludovic Joubert) (22 February 1842 – 27 May 1927) was a French soldier and lay missionary. He fought for the Papal States between 1860 and 1870 during the Italian unification, which he opposed. He later assisted the Wh ...
, a
French French may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to France ** French language, which originated in France ** French people, a nation and ethnic group ** French cuisine, cooking traditions and practices Arts and media * The French (band), ...
soldier and armed auxiliary, was dispatched by Archbishop
Charles Lavigerie Charles Martial Allemand Lavigerie, M. Afr. (31 October 1825 – 26 November 1892) was a French Catholic prelate and missionary who served as Archbishop of Carthage and Primate of Africa from 1884 to 1892. He previously served as Archbishop o ...
's Society of Missionaries of Africa to protect the missionaries. The missionaries abandoned three of the new stations due to Tippu Tip's and Rumaliza's attacks. By 1891, the slavers had control of the lake's entire western shore, apart from the region defended by Joubert around ''
Mpala Mpala is the location of an early Catholic mission in the Belgian Congo. A military station was established at Mpala on the shores of Lake Tanganyika in May 1883. It was transferred to the White Fathers missionaries in 1885. At one time it was hop ...
'' and ''St Louis de Mrumbi''. The anti-slavery expedition under Captain
Alphonse Jacques Lieutenant-general Baron Jules Marie Alphonse Jacques de Dixmude (24 February 1858 – 24 November 1928), often known as General Jacques, was a Belgian military figure of World War I and colonial advocate. Congo Free State He founded Albertvi ...
—financed by the
Belgian Anti-Slavery Society The Belgian Anti-Slavery Society (, {{langx, nl, Antislavernijmaatschappij van België) was a 19th-century organization, with the goal of putting an end to the Indian Ocean slave trade in the African continent. The ''Belgian Anti-Slavery Society'' ...
—came to the relief of Joubert on 30 October 1891. When the Jacques expedition arrived, Joubert's garrison was down to about 200 men, poorly armed with "a most miscellaneous assortment of
Chassepot The Chassepot (pronounced ; ), officially known as , was a bolt-action military breechloading rifle. It is famous for having been the arm of the French forces in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871. It replaced an assortment of muzzleloading ...
s, Remingtons and muzzle-loaders, without suitable cartridges." He also had hardly any medicine left. Captain Jacques asked Joubert to remain on the defensive while his expedition moved north. On 3 January 1892, Captain Alphonse Jacques' anti-slavery expedition founded the
Albertville Albertville (; Franco-Provençal, Arpitan: ''Arbèrtvile'') is a Subprefectures in France, subprefecture of the Savoie Departments of France, department in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes Regions of France, region in Southeastern France. It is best k ...
fortress on
Lake Tanganyika Lake Tanganyika ( ; ) is an African Great Lakes, African Great Lake. It is the world's List of lakes by volume, second-largest freshwater lake by volume and the List of lakes by depth, second deepest, in both cases after Lake Baikal in Siberia. ...
's shores, and tried to end the slave trade in the region. Rumaliza's troops surrounded Albertville on 5 April and besieged the outpost for 9 months. Eventually, Rumaliza's forces had to retreat because of the arrival of the ''Long-Duvivier-Demol'' Anti-Slavery expedition, a relief column sent from Brussels at captain Alphonse Jacques's aide.


The capture of Nyangwe and Kasongo

On 28 January 1893, Congo Free State forces reached the western bank of the Lualaba River opposite the city of
Nyangwe Nyangwe is a town on the right bank of the Lualaba River, in the Maniema Province in the east of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (territory of Kasongo). In the second half of the 19th century, it was an important Swahili–Arab hub for tra ...
, a major trading port for slaves and ivory in the region. The forces made no attempt to cross and instead established a camp on their side of the river, though over subsequent weeks they occasionally fired musket rounds at the city. On 4 March, the Free State forces crossed the river using 100 dugout canoes piloted by Genia fisherman. Surprised by the crossing, the Arab defenders and their allies in the city fled, allowing it to fall largely without resistance. Free State forces established a fortified position in an elevated area in the city. On 13 March, residents in Nyangwe revolted. The Free State troops defeated the insurrection and, out of fear of further unrest, set most of the city ablaze. The majority of Free States forces left on 17 April. Free State Army Captain Sidney Langford Hinde wrote that by the time the troops departed, the city "had been reduced from a well-built town of about thirty thousand inhabitants to one large fortified house with a soldiers' camp around it." With Nyangwe secured, the Free State forces focused on capturing
Kasongo Kasongo, also known as Piani Kasongo, is a town and territory in the Maniema Province in the east of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Geography Kasongo lies east of the Lualaba River, northwest of where it meets the Luama River, at an a ...
. Tippu Tip's capital in Maniema, the city was 35 miles south of Nyangwe and regularly hosted 20,000 residents, but the population had tripled due to an influx of refugees from Nyangwe as well as troops led by Said bin Abed and Muhammad bin Amici. Having never anticipated that Kasongo would be threatened, Sefu's lieutenants hurriedly worked to organise defences. Dhanis advanced up the river to
Kasongo Kasongo, also known as Piani Kasongo, is a town and territory in the Maniema Province in the east of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Geography Kasongo lies east of the Lualaba River, northwest of where it meets the Luama River, at an a ...
on 22 April 1893, while sending Lieutenant Doorme and his advanced guard to encircle the city. Caught between the Free State troops, the Arab defenders as well as civilians and slaves fled the city, letting it fall to their attackers in two hours. The Force Publique found a large supply store at Kasongo, including ivory, ammunition, food and luxuries such as sugar, candles,
gold Gold is a chemical element; it has chemical symbol Au (from Latin ) and atomic number 79. In its pure form, it is a brightness, bright, slightly orange-yellow, dense, soft, malleable, and ductile metal. Chemically, gold is a transition metal ...
, and
crystal A crystal or crystalline solid is a solid material whose constituents (such as atoms, molecules, or ions) are arranged in a highly ordered microscopic structure, forming a crystal lattice that extends in all directions. In addition, macros ...
tableware Tableware items are the dishware and utensils used for setting a table, serving food, and dining. The term includes cutlery, glassware, serving dishes, serving utensils, and other items used for practical as well as decorative purposes. The ...
. Sefu and the other Arab leaders escaped. For the next six months, Dhanis remained inactive, setting up supply routes and befriending the local tribes, while Rumaliza's forces were swelled by Swahili fighters who escaped earlier defeats by Dhanis.


Fight for the Stanley Falls

In 1893, Louis-Napoléon Chaltin was head of the
Force Publique The ''Force Publique'' (, "Public Force"; ) was the military of the Congo Free State and the Belgian Congo from 1885 to 1960. It was established after Belgian Army officers travelled to the Free State to found an armed force in the colony on L ...
station at
Basoko Basoko is a town on the Congo River in the Tshopo Province of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. As of 2009 it had an estimated population of 47,970. Climate Notable people *George Grenfell George Grenfell (21 August 1849, in Sancre ...
—the camp at Basoko had been established by the Congo Free State as a precaution, in the event of a quarrel with the Arab slave and ivory traders at Stanley Falls. Captain Chaltin and Richard Mohun—a commercial agent for the United States and the commander of the
artillery battery In military organizations, an artillery battery is a unit or multiple systems of artillery, mortar systems, rocket artillery, multiple rocket launchers, surface-to-surface missiles, ballistic missiles, cruise missiles, etc., so grouped to f ...
attached to this expedition—were ordered in May 1893 to join Captain Dhanis' forces near Kasongo. Chaltin went up the
Lomami River The Lomami River (, , ) is a major tributary of the Congo River in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The river is approximately long. It flows north, west of and parallel to the upper Congo. The Lomami rises in the south of the country, near ...
to
Bena-Kamba Bena Kamba is a community on the Lomami River in Maniema province of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The Lomami, which flows northward parallel to the Lualaba or Upper Congo River, is navigable as far south as Bena Kamba. From there, it is ...
with two river steamers, then striking overland to Riba Riba, near present-day
Kindu Kindu is a city in the Democratic Republic of Congo, the capital of Maniema province. It has a population of about 200,000 and is situated on the Lualaba River at an altitude of about 500 metres, and is about 400 km west of Bukavu. Kindu is ...
. At this point, smallpox had broken out in his caravan, and Chaltin was forced to return to Basoko. Chaltin arrived at Stanley Falls on 18 May, where Captain Tobback and Lieutenant Van Lint had for five days been resisting the attacks of the forces of Rashid ben Mohammed, the nephew of Tippu Tip. On the landing of the troops from Basoko at Stanley Falls, the Arab attackers decamped, leaving the town. After defeating them again at Kirundu, the Arab traders were expelled from the region. Chaltin went on to secure the Dungu region in the northeast of the Congo Free State, and was commander of the
Haut-Uélé Haut-Uélé (French for "Upper Uélé") is one of the 21 provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo created in the 2015 repartitioning. Haut-Uélé, Bas-Uélé, Ituri, and Tshopo provinces are the result of the dismemberment of the forme ...
district from 1893. On 25 June 1893, Commandant Pierre Ponthier arrived at the Stanley Falls from Europe. He immediately collected all the troops he could, took Captain
Hubert Lothaire Hubert Joseph Lothaire ( Rochefort, 10 November 1865 – Ixelles, 8 May 1929) was a Belgian officer who served in the Force Publique of the Congo Free State. He started his military career as a lieutenant in the Belgian infantry, later he entere ...
and some men from Bangala with him and followed the Arab units, who had fled from the Stanley Falls up the river. After some severe fighting and many skirmishes, he cleared the river and its neighbourhood, as far as Nyangwe. During a fortnight's severe fighting, Commandant Ponthier's attacks on the forts of Rumaliza failed, and Ponthier was killed in action.


Rumaliza's last stand

After the fall of Nyangwe and Kasongo,
Rumaliza Muhammad bin Khalfan bin Khamis al-Barwani () (born c. 1850, died 1919), commonly known as Rumaliza, was an Omani Swahili trader of slaves and ivory, active in Central and East Africa in the latter part of the nineteenth century. He was a member of ...
, the Arab leader of Ujiji, brought a large army from the
Lake Tanganyika Lake Tanganyika ( ; ) is an African Great Lakes, African Great Lake. It is the world's List of lakes by volume, second-largest freshwater lake by volume and the List of lakes by depth, second deepest, in both cases after Lake Baikal in Siberia. ...
region to Kabambare to retake the Arabs' lost ground. His troops then advanced towards the Lualaba River and erected forts south of Kasongo to threaten the Free State's control over the city. Rumaliza's force clashed with Dhanis' column on 15 October 1893, causing the death of two European leaders and 50 of their soldiers. On 19 October 1893, Rumaliza attacked a position one day's march from
Kasongo Kasongo, also known as Piani Kasongo, is a town and territory in the Maniema Province in the east of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Geography Kasongo lies east of the Lualaba River, northwest of where it meets the Luama River, at an a ...
. Dhanis concentrated his forces and defeated Rumaliza. The war's last major battle occurred on 20 October 1893, on the
Luama River The Luama River () is a tributary of the Lualaba River in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). Location The Luama rises in the mountains to the west of Lake Tanganyika, in the Kalemie Territory of Tanganyika District. It flows north and ...
, west of
Lake Tanganyika Lake Tanganyika ( ; ) is an African Great Lakes, African Great Lake. It is the world's List of lakes by volume, second-largest freshwater lake by volume and the List of lakes by depth, second deepest, in both cases after Lake Baikal in Siberia. ...
. It was a tactical stalemate, but Sefu was killed, and the remaining resistance soon disintegrated.Ewans, p. 140 By 24 December 1893, Dhanis obtained reinforcements and was ready to advance again. Rumaliza had also received assistance. Dhanis sent one column under Gillain to prevent Rumaliza's retreat, and another under De Wouters to advance on Rumaliza's fort near Bena Kalunga. A group of fresh forces coming to Rumaliza's aid from
German East Africa German East Africa (GEA; ) was a German colonial empire, German colony in the African Great Lakes region, which included present-day Burundi, Rwanda, the Tanzania mainland, and the Kionga Triangle, a small region later incorporated into Portugu ...
was headed off, and Dhanis's forces closed in on Rumaliza's '' bomas'' (Swahili for fort). On 9 January 1894, Belgian reinforcements arrived under Captain
Hubert Lothaire Hubert Joseph Lothaire ( Rochefort, 10 November 1865 – Ixelles, 8 May 1929) was a Belgian officer who served in the Force Publique of the Congo Free State. He started his military career as a lieutenant in the Belgian infantry, later he entere ...
, and the same day a shell blew up Rumaliza's ammunition store and burned down the fort containing it. Most of the occupants were killed while attempting to escape. Within three days, the remaining forts, cut off from water and other supplies, surrendered. More than two thousand prisoners were taken. A column under Lothaire pursued him to the north of Lake Tanganyika, destroying his fortified positions along the route, although Rumaliza himself managed to escape. At the lake, they joined with the anti-slavery expedition led by Captain
Alphonse Jacques Lieutenant-general Baron Jules Marie Alphonse Jacques de Dixmude (24 February 1858 – 24 November 1928), often known as General Jacques, was a Belgian military figure of World War I and colonial advocate. Congo Free State He founded Albertvi ...
Rumaliza took refuge in the German colony of
German East Africa German East Africa (GEA; ) was a German colonial empire, German colony in the African Great Lakes region, which included present-day Burundi, Rwanda, the Tanzania mainland, and the Kionga Triangle, a small region later incorporated into Portugu ...
. The war ended in a victory for the Free State by January 1894.


Aftermath and impact

The war resulted in tens of thousands of deaths among both combatants and civilians, and significantly altered the political and economic geography of the Congo. The market around Nyangwe ceased to exist, while the city of
Kasongo Kasongo, also known as Piani Kasongo, is a town and territory in the Maniema Province in the east of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Geography Kasongo lies east of the Lualaba River, northwest of where it meets the Luama River, at an a ...
was all but destroyed. With the absence of these markets and the Arab traders themselves, much of Congo's exports were rerouted from their destinations in East Africa to the
Stanley Pool The Pool Malebo, formerly Stanley Pool, also known as Mpumbu, Lake Nkunda or Lake Nkuna by local indigenous people in pre-colonial times, is a lake-like widening in the lower reaches of the Congo River.
and the Atlantic Ocean. The colonial authorities retained much of the Arab administrative structure in the eastern Congo until the 1920s. The participation of the
Batetela The indigenous people within the Kasai Basin up to Maniema understood themselves to be descendants of "AnKutshu Membele", then in the 20th century many accepted the colonially imposed category and term Tetela (or Batetela in the plural). "Batet ...
and Bakusu tribes in the war marked the transcendence of their societies' traditional values by desires for
wealth Wealth is the abundance of valuable financial assets or physical possessions which can be converted into a form that can be used for transactions. This includes the core meaning as held in the originating Old English word , which is from an ...
and
power Power may refer to: Common meanings * Power (physics), meaning "rate of doing work" ** Engine power, the power put out by an engine ** Electric power, a type of energy * Power (social and political), the ability to influence people or events Math ...
through
expansionism Expansionism refers to states obtaining greater territory through military Imperialism, empire-building or colonialism. In the classical age of conquest moral justification for territorial expansion at the direct expense of another established p ...
, assimilation, and
cultural exchange Culture ( ) is a concept that encompasses the social behavior, institutions, and norms found in human societies, as well as the knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, customs, capabilities, attitudes, and habits of the individuals in these ...
. Their involvement in the slave trade made Belgian authorities wary of them, and in turn, they were neglected during colonial rule. The war has generally received little academic attention. According to historian Bruce Vandervort, the conflict was "one of the most obscure of the wars of imperial conquest in Africa."


See also

*
Batetela rebellion The Batetela rebellion () was a series of three military mutinies and a subsequent low-level insurgency which was attributed to members of the Tetela ethnic group in the Congo Free State between 1895 and 1908. Beginning in a mutiny among Tetela ...
* * Richard Mohun *
Battle of Rejaf The Battle of Rejaf, also known as the Battle of Bedden, was fought on 17 February 1897 between the Belgium, Belgian-led forces of the Congo Free State and Mahdist State, Mahdist rebels in Rejaf (now in present-day South Sudan). The battle resul ...
*
Léon Rom Léon Auguste Théophile Rom (2 April 1859 – 30 January 1924) was a Belgian military officer and colonial administrator. His role in atrocities in the Congo Free State have led some to speculate that Rom served as an inspiration for the charact ...


References


Notes


Bibliography

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Further reading

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External links


Papers Past, Sydney Morning Herald, 1897: An Unknown War
{{DEFAULTSORT:Congo Arab war Arab diaspora in Africa Belgian colonisation in Africa Congo Free State Wars involving Belgium Wars involving Zanzibar Battles involving the Force Publique 1890s in the Congo Free State 1890s in Zanzibar 1892 in the Congo Free State 1893 in the Congo Free State 1894 in the Congo Free State 1892 in Africa 1893 in Africa 1894 in Africa History of slavery in the Muslim world French Roman Catholic missionaries French soldiers Conflicts in 1892 Conflicts in 1893 Conflicts in 1894 Zanzibar slave trade