The Congo–Arab War (also known as the Congolese–Arab War, Belgo–Arab War or Arab Wars) was fought in
Central Africa between the forces of
Belgian King
Leopold II's Congo Free State
''(Work and Progress)
, national_anthem = Vers l'avenir
, capital = Vivi Boma
, currency = Congo Free State franc
, religion = Catholicism (''de facto'')
, leader1 = Leopo ...
and various
Zanzibari
Arab slave traders led by
Sefu bin Hamid
Sefu bin Hamid (? – 20 October 1893) was an Arab Zanzibari slave trader and administrative official. The son of Tippu Tip, he was killed while fighting in the Congo–Arab War.
Governor of the Stanley Falls District
In early 1887, Henry Mort ...
,
Tippu Tip's son. It was a
proxy war in eastern Congo from 1892 to 1894, with most of the fighting being done by native Congolese, who aligned themselves with either side and sometimes switched sides.
The war was caused by Leopold and the Arabs contending for the control of Congo's wealth.
[Edgerton, p. 85] The war ended in January 1894 with a victory of Leopold's ''
Force Publique''. Initially, King Leopold II collaborated with the Arabs. Still, competition struck over the control of
ivory and the topic of Leopold II's humanitarian pledges to the
Berlin Conference to end slavery. Leopold II's stance turned confrontational against his once-allies.
[Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja: ''The Congo: From Leopold to Kabila: A People's History'', 2002, ]
page 21
The war against the Swahili-Arab economic and political power was presented as a
Christian
Christians () are people who follow or adhere to Christianity, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. The words ''Christ'' and ''Christian'' derive from the Koine Greek title ''Christós'' (Χρι ...
anti-slavery crusade.
Prelude
In 1886, while Tippu Tip was in Zanzibar, a dispute arose between a fort at
Stanley Falls of Tippu Tip, and a smaller, nearby Congo Free State fort led by Walter Deane and a
Lt. Dubois. Tip's men at the Stanley Falls fort alleged that Deane had stolen a slave woman from an Arab officer, but Deane asserted that the girl had fled after being badly beaten by her master, and that he had only offered her refuge.

Tippu Tip's men attacked the fort — the Congo Free State fort was defended by the two officers, eighty
Nigerian Hausas and sixty local
militiamen — and after a four-day siege, the defenders ran out of ammunition and fled, abandoning the fort.
[Edgerton, p. 94] The Free State did not
counterattack, and Tippu Tip began to move more men into the Congo, including several Arab slaver captains and some Congolese leaders, e.g.
Gongo Lutete Ngongo Lutete (or Gongo Lutete or Ngongo Leteta) was a Congolese leader and chieftain during the late 19th century.
Biography
As a boy Ngongo Lutete was enslaved by Arabs, but after winning his freedom he became a respected leader of the Batetel ...
.

Initially, Congo Free State's authority was relatively weak in Congo's eastern regions. In early 1887,
Henry Morton Stanley
Sir Henry Morton Stanley (born John Rowlands; 28 January 1841 – 10 May 1904) was a Welsh-American explorer, journalist, soldier, colonial administrator, author and politician who was famous for his exploration of Central Africa
Cen ...
arrived in
Zanzibar and proposed that ''Tippu Tip'' (
nom de guerre
A pseudonym (; ) or alias () is a fictitious name that a person or group assumes for a particular purpose, which differs from their original or true name (orthonym). This also differs from a new name that entirely or legally replaces an individua ...
— his real name was Hamad bin Muhammad bin Juma bin Rajab el Murjebi) be made
governor (wali) of the
Stanley Falls District
Stanley Falls District (french: District des Stanley Falls, nl, District Stanley Falls) was a district of the Congo Free State. It covered most of the eastern part of the colony along the Congo River south from Stanleyville (present-day Kisangani ...
in the
Congo Free State
''(Work and Progress)
, national_anthem = Vers l'avenir
, capital = Vivi Boma
, currency = Congo Free State franc
, religion = Catholicism (''de facto'')
, leader1 = Leopo ...
. Both
Leopold II and
Barghash bin Said agreed. On February 24, 1887, Tippu Tip accepted. Tippu Tip agreed to submit to Congo Free State's authority and to allow a Congo Free State
Resident by his side to help him govern this territory in a system of
indirect rule which was patterned after those employed by other
European colonial powers in Africa and
Asia. The territory borders were the
Aruwimi
The Aruwimi River is a tributary of the Congo River, located to the north and east of the Congo.Stanley, H.M., 1899, Through the Dark Continent, London: G. Newnes, Vol. One , Vol. Two
The Aruwimi begins as the Ituri River, which rises near Lake ...
and the
Lualaba rivers.
Additionally, Tippu Tip was to redirect his ivory trade through the Congo Free State, to the
Atlantic Ocean ports and he was to assist King Leopold II ‘s forces in their expeditions to the
Upper Nile, to help further expand his territories. Soon after this deal, it became apparent that Tippu Tip was not inclined to accept Congo Free State authority and considered himself more of a
vassal than a state official, allowed to do as he pleased, within certain boundaries. Furthermore, Tippu Tip did not have absolute authority over the eastern Congo region, but was considered as a
primus inter pares
''Primus inter pares'' is a Latin phrase meaning first among equals. It is typically used as an honorary title for someone who is formally equal to other members of their group but is accorded unofficial respect, traditionally owing to their sen ...
. Other major slave traders like
Lake Tanganyika
Lake Tanganyika () is an African Great Lake. It is the second-oldest freshwater lake in the world, the second-largest by volume, and the second-deepest, in all cases after Lake Baikal in Siberia. It is the world's longest freshwater lake. ...
's
strongman Rumaliza considered his deal with the Congo Free State treasonous. Rumaliza abolished the Congo Free State flag and swore loyalty to the
Zanzibar sultan's red flag.
Leopold II was heavily criticized in European public opinion for his dealings with Tippu Tip. In Belgium, the
Belgian Anti-Slavery Society, founded in
1888
In Germany, 1888 is known as the Year of the Three Emperors. Currently, it is the year that, when written in Roman numerals, has the most digits (13). The next year that also has 13 digits is the year 2388. The record will be surpassed as late ...
, mainly by Roman Catholic intellectuals led by count
Hippolyte d'Ursel, aimed to abolish the
East African slave trade. Around 1890-91, Tippu Tip returned to Zanzibar, where he retired;
Sefu bin Hamid
Sefu bin Hamid (? – 20 October 1893) was an Arab Zanzibari slave trader and administrative official. The son of Tippu Tip, he was killed while fighting in the Congo–Arab War.
Governor of the Stanley Falls District
In early 1887, Henry Mort ...
represented his father in the eastern Congo region of
Kasongo
Kasongo, also known as Piani Kasongo, is a town and a Territory, located in the Maniema Province of the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo.
Geography
Kasongo lies east of the Lualaba River, northwest of its confluence with the Luama River ...
and carried on the war in his stead.
Course of the war
In March and April 1892, Tippu Tip's son
Sefu bin Hamid
Sefu bin Hamid (? – 20 October 1893) was an Arab Zanzibari slave trader and administrative official. The son of Tippu Tip, he was killed while fighting in the Congo–Arab War.
Governor of the Stanley Falls District
In early 1887, Henry Mort ...
began attacking Congo Free State personnel in eastern Congo, including ivory trader Arthur Hodister—sent by the Syndicat Commercial du Katanga to 'acquire' ivory—and Captain
Guillaume Van Kerckhoven, who had been forcefully confiscating ivory from several powerful Arab traders.
[Edgerton, p. 99] These expeditions united regional slave and ivory traders to fight their common enemy, the Congo Free State.
The Times reported in 1892 that, during further explorations in the Congo, Hodister was captured and killed, his head stuck on a pole. Relations were further strained when Rashid ben Mohammed, Tippu Tip's nephew and resident Arab leader in Stanley Falls, refused to assist in the investigation of Hodister's death.
Gongo Lutete Ngongo Lutete (or Gongo Lutete or Ngongo Leteta) was a Congolese leader and chieftain during the late 19th century.
Biography
As a boy Ngongo Lutete was enslaved by Arabs, but after winning his freedom he became a respected leader of the Batetel ...
also led actions in the east at this time.
Initial hostilities

The Force Publique, under
Francis Dhanis
Francis Ernest Joseph Marie Dhanis (11 March 1861 – 13 November 1909) was a Belgian colonial civil servant and soldier noted for his service for the Congo Free State during the Congo Arab War and Batetela Rebellion.
Early life and career ...
, was sent to
Katanga to resupply the Lofoi trading post, establishing new outposts on his path. During this mission, the Force Publique crossed paths with
Gongo Lutete Ngongo Lutete (or Gongo Lutete or Ngongo Leteta) was a Congolese leader and chieftain during the late 19th century.
Biography
As a boy Ngongo Lutete was enslaved by Arabs, but after winning his freedom he became a respected leader of the Batetel ...
's soldiers— captured by Tippu Tip as a boy; after winning his freedom, he became the leader of the
Batetela and Bakusu tribes. Gongo Letete was heading west to
Kasaï, picking up weapon supplies from
Angola, in an attempt to strengthen his position in the
Lomani region.
After several skirmishes in April–May 1892 with the better equipped Free State forces of Dhanis and Michaux, Gongo Lutete decided to make a deal with the Congo Free State. On 19 September, he switched sides and joined the
Force Publique - other native leaders like Pania Mutomba before him and Lupungu, chief of the
Songe at
Kabinda shortly thereafter, had also joined the Force Publique.
Maniema campaign
By October 1892, Sefu was leading a force of 10,000 men, some 500 Zanzibari officers and the remaining were Congolese.
The
Force Publique army led by Francis Dhanis, consisted of a few dozen Belgian officers and several thousand African auxiliaries.
[Cyclopedia, p. 190] Open warfare broke out in late November 1892, when Sefu set up a fort on the
Lomami River, where the Force Publique attacked him and eventually was forced to retreat.
Dhanis used this battle as a pretext for advancing against the Arabs in force. He allowed his army to travel with all of their wives, slaves, and servants, who did all of the army's cooking and cleaning and acted as a supply train.
In addition, he did not allow his men to harm local non-combatants, earning him the goodwill of the local people.
[Edgerton, p. 100]
Rumaliza campaign
By this time, the Congo Free State gained military strength in the region and became less tolerant of "Arab" strongmen, determined to stamp them out. The Congo Free State forces under
Francis Dhanis
Francis Ernest Joseph Marie Dhanis (11 March 1861 – 13 November 1909) was a Belgian colonial civil servant and soldier noted for his service for the Congo Free State during the Congo Arab War and Batetela Rebellion.
Early life and career ...
launched a new campaign against the slave traders in 1892, and Rumaliza was one of the main targets.
By 1892, the Swahili slave and ivory trader
Rumaliza dominated
Tanganyika from his base at
Ujiji on the old slave route that led from
Stanley Falls up the
Lualaba River to
Nyangwe, east to Lake Tanganyika and then via
Tabora to
Bagamoyo
Bagamoyo, is a historic coastal town founded at the end of the 18th century, though it is an extension of a much older (8th century) Swahili settlement, Kaole. It was chosen as the capital of German East Africa by the German colonial administrat ...
opposite Zanzibar. The total number of
Swahili
Swahili may refer to:
* Swahili language, a Bantu language official in Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda and widely spoken in the African Great Lakes
* Swahili people, an ethnic group in East Africa
* Swahili culture
Swahili culture is the culture of ...
fighters in this huge region numbered around 100,000, but each chief acted independently from the main body. Although experienced in warfare, they were poorly armed with simple rifles. The Belgians had just 600 troops divided between the
Basoko and
Lusambo camps, but were much better armed and had six cannons and a machine gun.
In the previous years (1886-1891), the
Society of Missionaries of Africa founded Catholic missions at the north and south ends of
Lake Tanganyika
Lake Tanganyika () is an African Great Lake. It is the second-oldest freshwater lake in the world, the second-largest by volume, and the second-deepest, in all cases after Lake Baikal in Siberia. It is the world's longest freshwater lake. ...
.
Léopold Louis Joubert, a
French
French (french: français(e), link=no) may refer to:
* Something of, from, or related to France
** French language, which originated in France, and its various dialects and accents
** French people, a nation and ethnic group identified with Franc ...
soldier and armed auxiliary, was dispatched by Archbishop
Charles Lavigerie's Society of Missionaries of Africa to protect the missionaries. The missionaries abandoned three of the new stations due to Tippu Tip's and Rumaliza's attacks. By 1891, the slavers had control of the lake's entire western shore, apart from the region defended by Joubert around ''
Mpala'' and ''St Louis de Mrumbi''. The
anti-slavery expedition under Captain
Alphonse Jacques—financed by the
Belgian Anti-Slavery Society—came to the relief of Joubert on 30 October 1891. When the Jacques expedition arrived, Joubert's garrison was down to about 200 men, poorly armed with "a most miscellaneous assortment of
Chassepots,
Remingtons and muzzle-loaders, without suitable cartridges." He also had hardly any medicine left. Captain Jacques asked Joubert to remain on the defensive while his expedition moved north.
On 3 January 1892, Captain Alphonse Jacques' anti-slavery expedition founded the
Albertville fortress on
Lake Tanganyika
Lake Tanganyika () is an African Great Lake. It is the second-oldest freshwater lake in the world, the second-largest by volume, and the second-deepest, in all cases after Lake Baikal in Siberia. It is the world's longest freshwater lake. ...
's shores, and tried to end the slave trade in the region. Rumaliza's troops surrounded Albertville on 5 April and besieged the outpost for 9 months. Eventually, Rumaliza's forces had to retreat because of the arrival of the
''Long-Duvivier-Demol'' Anti-Slavery expedition, a relief column sent from Brussels at captain Alphonse Jacques's aide.
The capture of Nyangwe and Kasongo
On 4 March 1893,
Francis Dhanis
Francis Ernest Joseph Marie Dhanis (11 March 1861 – 13 November 1909) was a Belgian colonial civil servant and soldier noted for his service for the Congo Free State during the Congo Arab War and Batetela Rebellion.
Early life and career ...
' Congo Free State forces took control of
Nyangwe, a key river city, after a 6-week standoff that devastated the city. Of the city's thousand original buildings, only one remained standing.
On 9 March, the Congo Free State encampment at Nyangwe was struck by a
virulent form of influenza; by the first week's end, nearly all men were infected. At about that time, Sefu began sending
smallpox cases from all over the district to Nyangwe, his ruse succeeded, and a smallpox epidemic followed influenza. The mortality from smallpox and influenza among Lutete's people and the other native allies of the Congo Free State was substantial. Following these events, Sefu sent ambassadors to Nyangwe, bringing with them Lutete's oldest son and daughter, whom he had held as hostages, in return for a 10-day ceasefire. Dhanis agreed, giving his soldiers a chance to recover from the effects of their sickness.
Commandant Gillian arrived with Congo Free State reinforcements on April 13. Dhanis advanced up the river to
Kasongo
Kasongo, also known as Piani Kasongo, is a town and a Territory, located in the Maniema Province of the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo.
Geography
Kasongo lies east of the Lualaba River, northwest of its confluence with the Luama River ...
on 22 April 1893, while sending Lieutenant Doorme and his advanced guard to encircle the city, surprising the Arab slavers and taking all their defenses in the rear. The Force Publique found a huge supply store at Kasongo, including ivory, ammunition, food and luxuries such as
gold and
crystal tableware. For the next six months, Dhanis remained inactive, setting up supply routes and befriending the local tribes, while Rumaliza's forces were swelled by Swahili fighters who escaped earlier defeats by Dhanis.
Fight for the Stanley Falls
In 1893,
Louis-Napoléon Chaltin was head of the
Force Publique station at
Basoko—the camp at Basoko had been established by the Congo Free State as a precaution, in the event of a quarrel with the Arab slave and ivory traders at Stanley Falls. Captain Chaltin and
Richard Mohun
Richard Dorsey Loraine Mohun (April 12, 1864 – July 13, 1915) was an American explorer, diplomat, mineral prospector and mercenary.. Mohun worked for the United States government as a commercial agent in Angola and the Congo Free State. ...
—a commercial agent for the United States and the commander of the
artillery battery
In military organizations, an artillery battery is a unit or multiple systems of artillery, mortar systems, rocket artillery, multiple rocket launchers, surface-to-surface missiles, ballistic missiles, cruise missiles, etc., so grouped to fac ...
attached to this expedition—were ordered in May 1893 to join Captain Dhanis' forces near Kasongo. Chaltin went up the
Lomami River to
Bena-Kamba with two
river steamers, then striking overland to
Riba Riba
Lokandu is a community in Maniema Province of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, on the Lualaba River downstream from Kindu.
Henry Morton Stanley refers to it as "the frontier village of Manyema, which is called Riba-Riba."Stanley, H.M., 189 ...
, near present-day
Kindu. At this point, smallpox had broken out in his caravan, and Chaltin was forced to return to Basoko. Chaltin arrived at Stanley Falls on 18 May, where Captain Tobback and Lieutenant Van Lint had for five days been resisting the attacks of the forces of Rashid ben Mohammed, the nephew of Tippu Tip. On the landing of the troops from Basoko at Stanley Falls, the Arab attackers decamped, leaving the town. After defeating them again at
Kirundu, the Arab traders were expelled from the region. Chaltin went on to secure the
Dungu region in the northeast of the Congo Free State, and was commander of the
Haut-Uélé district from 1893.
On 25 June 1893, Commandant Pierre Ponthier arrived at the Stanley Falls from Europe. He immediately collected all the troops he could, took Captain
Hubert Lothaire
Hubert Joseph Lothaire (Rochefort, 10 November 1865 – Ixelles, 8 May 1929) was a Belgian officer who served in the Force Publique of the Congo Free State. He started his military career as a lieutenant in the Belgian infantry, later he entered ...
and some men from Bangala with him and followed the Arab units, who had fled from the Stanley Falls up the river. After some severe fighting and many skirmishes, he cleared the river and its neighbourhood, as far as Nyangwe. During a fortnight's severe fighting, Commandant Ponthier's attacks on the forts of Rumaliza failed, and Ponthier was killed in action.
Rumaliza's last stand

In 1893 Tippu Tip advised
Rumaliza to retire from the trade, but Rumaliza first had to look after his people at Lake Tanganyika. Rumaliza raised a strong force, which clashed with Dhanis' column on 15 October 1893, causing the death of two European leaders and fifty of their soldiers. On 19 October 1893, Rumaliza attacked a position one day's march from
Kasongo
Kasongo, also known as Piani Kasongo, is a town and a Territory, located in the Maniema Province of the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo.
Geography
Kasongo lies east of the Lualaba River, northwest of its confluence with the Luama River ...
. Dhanis concentrated his forces and defeated Rumaliza.
The war's last major battle occurred on 20 October 1893, on the
Luama River, west of
Lake Tanganyika
Lake Tanganyika () is an African Great Lake. It is the second-oldest freshwater lake in the world, the second-largest by volume, and the second-deepest, in all cases after Lake Baikal in Siberia. It is the world's longest freshwater lake. ...
. It was a tactical stalemate, but
Sefu was killed, and the remaining resistance soon disintegrated.
[Ewans, p. 140] By 24 December 1893, Dhanis obtained reinforcements and was ready to advance again. Rumaliza had also received assistance. Dhanis sent one column under Gillain to prevent Rumaliza's retreat, and another under De Wouters to advance on Rumaliza's fort near Bena Kalunga. A group of fresh forces coming to Rumaliza's aid from
German East Africa
German East Africa (GEA; german: Deutsch-Ostafrika) was a German colony in the African Great Lakes region, which included present-day Burundi, Rwanda, the Tanzania mainland, and the Kionga Triangle, a small region later incorporated into Mozam ...
was headed off, and Dhanis's forces closed in on Rumaliza's ''
bomas'' (Swahili for fort). On 9 January 1894, Belgian reinforcements arrived under Captain
Hubert Lothaire
Hubert Joseph Lothaire (Rochefort, 10 November 1865 – Ixelles, 8 May 1929) was a Belgian officer who served in the Force Publique of the Congo Free State. He started his military career as a lieutenant in the Belgian infantry, later he entered ...
, and the same day a shell blew up Rumaliza's ammunition store and burned down the fort containing it. Most of the occupants were killed while attempting to escape. Within three days, the remaining forts, cut off from water and other supplies, surrendered. More than two thousand prisoners were taken. A column under Lothaire pursued him to the north of Lake Tanganyika, destroying his fortified positions along the route, although Rumaliza himself managed to escape. At the lake, they joined with the anti-slavery expedition led by Captain
Alphonse Jacques Rumaliza took refuge in the German colony of
German East Africa
German East Africa (GEA; german: Deutsch-Ostafrika) was a German colony in the African Great Lakes region, which included present-day Burundi, Rwanda, the Tanzania mainland, and the Kionga Triangle, a small region later incorporated into Mozam ...
. The war ended in a victory for the Free State by January 1894.
Aftermath and impact

The war resulted in tens of thousands of deaths among both combatants and civilians, and significantly altered the political and economic geography of the Congo. The market around Nyangwe ceased to exist, while the city of
Kasongo
Kasongo, also known as Piani Kasongo, is a town and a Territory, located in the Maniema Province of the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo.
Geography
Kasongo lies east of the Lualaba River, northwest of its confluence with the Luama River ...
was all but destroyed. With the absence of these markets and the Arab traders themselves, much of Congo's exports were rerouted from their destinations in East Africa to the
Stanley Pool
The Pool Malebo, formerly Stanley Pool, also known as Mpumbu, Lake Nkunda or Lake Nkuna by local indigenous people in pre-colonial times, is a lake-like widening in the lower reaches of the Congo River. and the Atlantic Ocean. The participation of the
Batetela and
Bakusu tribes in the war marked the transcendence of their societies' traditional values by desires for
wealth and
power through
expansionism
Expansionism refers to states obtaining greater territory through military empire-building or colonialism.
In the classical age of conquest moral justification for territorial expansion at the direct expense of another established polity (who of ...
,
assimilation
Assimilation may refer to:
Culture
*Cultural assimilation, the process whereby a minority group gradually adapts to the customs and attitudes of the prevailing culture and customs
**Language shift, also known as language assimilation, the progre ...
, and
cultural exchange. Their involvement in the slave trade made Belgian authorities wary of them, and in turn, they were neglected during colonial rule.
See also
*
Batetela rebellion
*
Richard Mohun
Richard Dorsey Loraine Mohun (April 12, 1864 – July 13, 1915) was an American explorer, diplomat, mineral prospector and mercenary.. Mohun worked for the United States government as a commercial agent in Angola and the Congo Free State. ...
*
Battle of Rejaf
*
Léon Rom
References
Notes
Bibliography
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External links
WHKMLA - History of the Belgo–Arab War, 189201894Papers Past, Sydney Morning Herald, 1897: An Unknown War
{{DEFAULTSORT:Congo-Arab War
Arab diaspora in Africa
Belgian colonisation in Africa
Congo Free State
History of Zanzibar
Wars involving Belgium
Wars involving Zanzibar
Battles involving the Force Publique
1890s in the Congo Free State
1890s in Zanzibar
1892 in the Congo Free State
1893 in the Congo Free State
1894 in the Congo Free State
1892 in Africa
1893 in Africa
1894 in Africa
African slave trade
Islam and slavery
French Roman Catholic missionaries
French soldiers
Conflicts in 1892
Conflicts in 1893
Conflicts in 1894