Ciskei ( , meaning ''on this side of
Kei">he riverKei''), officially the Republic of Ciskei (), was a
Bantustan
A Bantustan (also known as a Bantu peoples, Bantu homeland, a Black people, black homeland, a Khoisan, black state or simply known as a homeland; ) was a territory that the National Party (South Africa), National Party administration of the ...
for the
Xhosa people
The Xhosa people ( , ; ) are a Bantu peoples, Bantu ethnic group that migrated over centuries into Southern Africa eventually settling in South Africa. They are the second largest ethnic group in South Africa and are native speakers of the Xho ...
, located in the southeast of
South Africa
South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa (RSA), is the Southern Africa, southernmost country in Africa. Its Provinces of South Africa, nine provinces are bounded to the south by of coastline that stretches along the Atlantic O ...
. It covered an area of , almost entirely surrounded by what was then the
Cape Province
The Province of the Cape of Good Hope (), commonly referred to as the Cape Province () and colloquially as The Cape (), was a province in the Union of South Africa and subsequently the Republic of South Africa. It encompassed the old Cape Co ...
, and possessed a small coastline along the shore of the
Indian Ocean
The Indian Ocean is the third-largest of the world's five oceanic divisions, covering or approximately 20% of the water area of Earth#Surface, Earth's surface. It is bounded by Asia to the north, Africa to the west and Australia (continent), ...
.
Under South Africa's policy of
apartheid
Apartheid ( , especially South African English: , ; , ) was a system of institutionalised racial segregation that existed in South Africa and South West Africa (now Namibia) from 1948 to the early 1990s. It was characterised by an ...
, land was set aside for black peoples in
self-governing
Self-governance, self-government, self-sovereignty or self-rule is the ability of a person or group to exercise all necessary functions of regulation without intervention from an external authority. It may refer to personal conduct or to any ...
territories. Ciskei was designated as one of two homelands, or "Bantustans", for
Xhosa
Xhosa may refer to:
* Xhosa people, a nation, and ethnic group, who live in south-central and southeasterly region of South Africa
* Xhosa language, one of the 11 official languages of South Africa, principally spoken by the Xhosa people
See als ...
-speaking people.
Xhosa people were forcibly resettled in the Ciskei and
Transkei
Transkei ( , meaning ''the area beyond Great Kei River, he riverKei''), officially the Republic of Transkei (), was an list of historical unrecognized states and dependencies, unrecognised state in the southeastern region of South Africa f ...
, the other Xhosa homeland.
In contrast to the Transkei, which was largely contiguous and deeply rural, and governed by hereditary chiefs, the area that became the Ciskei had initially been made up of a patchwork of "reserves",
interspersed with pockets of white-owned farms. In Ciskei, there were elected headmen and a relatively educated working-class populace,
but there was a tendency of the region's black residents—who often worked in
East London
East London is the part of London, England, east of the ancient City of London and north of the River Thames as it begins to widen. East London developed as London Docklands, London's docklands and the primary industrial centre. The expansion of ...
,
Queenstown, and
King Williams Town—to oppose traditional methods of control.
These differences have been posited as the reason for two separate homelands for the Xhosa people being developed, as well as the later nominal independence of Ciskei from South Africa, than Transkei.
After its creation, large numbers of blacks, in particular, "non-productive Bantus"—women with dependent children, the elderly, and the infirm—were expelled by the apartheid government from designated white areas in the
Cape Province
The Province of the Cape of Good Hope (), commonly referred to as the Cape Province () and colloquially as The Cape (), was a province in the Union of South Africa and subsequently the Republic of South Africa. It encompassed the old Cape Co ...
to Ciskei, and it was also treated as a reservoir of cheap black labour.
The diaspora of the Ciskei Xhosa was due to the settler colonialism and internal wars between the Xhosa.
Ciskei had a succession of capitals during its existence. Originally,
Zwelitsha served as the capital, with the view that
Alice
Alice may refer to:
* Alice (name), most often a feminine given name, but also used as a surname
Literature
* Alice (''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland''), a character in books by Lewis Carroll
* ''Alice'' series, children's and teen books by ...
would become the long-term national capital. However, it was
Bisho
Bhisho, formerly Bisho, is the capital of the Eastern Cape province in South Africa. The Office of the Premier, Provincial Legislature and many other government departments are headquartered in the town. The town, three kilometres from King Will ...
(now spelled ''Bhisho'') that became the capital until Ciskei's reintegration into South Africa.
History

By the time
Sir John Cradock was appointed governor of the
Cape Colony
The Cape Colony (), also known as the Cape of Good Hope, was a British Empire, British colony in present-day South Africa named after the Cape of Good Hope. It existed from 1795 to 1802, and again from 1806 to 1910, when it united with three ...
in 1811, the Zuurveld region had lapsed into disorder, and many white farmers had begun abandoning their farms.
[
] Early during 1812, on the instructions of the governor,
Lieutenant-Colonel John Graham forced 20,000
Xhosa
Xhosa may refer to:
* Xhosa people, a nation, and ethnic group, who live in south-central and southeasterly region of South Africa
* Xhosa language, one of the 11 official languages of South Africa, principally spoken by the Xhosa people
See als ...
to cross the
Fish River.
Subsequently, 27 military posts were erected across this border, which resulted in the establishment of the garrison towns of
Grahamstown
Makhanda, formerly known as Grahamstown, is a town of about 75,000 people in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa. It is situated about northeast of Gqeberha and southwest of East London. It is the largest town in the Makana Local Mun ...
and
Cradock.
At the end of the 19th century, the area known as
British Kaffraria between the Fish and Kei rivers had been set aside for the "Bantu", and was known as the Ciskei from then on.
[
] Europeans gave the name ''Ciskei'' to the area to distinguish it from the ''Transkei'', the area north of the Kei.
[
]
After the
Union of South Africa
The Union of South Africa (; , ) was the historical predecessor to the present-day South Africa, Republic of South Africa. It came into existence on 31 May 1910 with the unification of the British Cape Colony, Cape, Colony of Natal, Natal, Tra ...
formed in 1910, the "Bantu" rights of occupation remained unclear, and differed from colony to colony within South Africa. The Native Lands Act of 1913 demarcated the reserves in the Union, and made it illegal to sell or lease these lands to Europeans (except in the Cape Colony).
General Hertzog pursued his segregation policy, and subsequently passed the
Native Trust and Land Act in 1936.
[
] This act effectively abolished the right of the Cape "Bantu" to buy land outside of the existing reserves.
The boundaries of the Ciskei region changed as land was added and excised. A notable excision was the removal of the Glen Grey and Herschel Districts, and their allocation to the newly independent Transkei,
with the populations of the districts moving into the rest of Ciskei to retain their South African citizenship (which was subsequently lost when Ciskei became independent).
By the 1970s, the South African government decided on the final boundaries of Ciskei, as a consolidated area, through the amalgamation of existing reserves allocated to Ciskei, and the purchase of intervening white-owned land.
This amalgamation reduced the total length of Ciskei's borders, making them easier for the South African government to police, as well being an attempt to create a more viable area for the homeland.
Independence
In 1961, Ciskei became a separate administrative region, and in 1972, was declared self-governing under the rule of
Chief Justice Mabandla, who was then followed by
Lennox Sebe. Mabandla was a
Fengu, a group that had allied itself with the British in the
frontier wars, and were better educated as a result of historically embracing colonial education. Further embittered by the policies of "retribalisation" by the apartheid authorities, the
Rharhabe became resentful, and asserted their position, which culminated in the election of Sebe
—although Sebe later abandoned his anti-Fengu rhetoric.
In 1978, it became a single-party state under the rule of Sebe. In 1981, following an
independence referendum
An independence referendum is a type of referendum in which the residents of a territory decide whether the territory should become an Independence, independent sovereign state. An independence referendum that results in a vote for independenc ...
in 1980, it became the fourth homeland to be declared independent by the South African government, and its residents lost their South African citizenship. However, there were no
border control
Border control comprises measures taken by governments to monitor and regulate the movement of people, animals, and goods across land, air, and maritime borders. While border control is typically associated with international borders, it als ...
s between South Africa and Ciskei.
Black people who were found to be living without permits in white areas or farms in South Africa, often for generations, were forcibly relocated to Ciskei by apartheid authorities, generally from "black spots" in the neighbouring "white corridor",
and moved into squalid resettlement camps.
A 1983 study by
Rhodes University
Rhodes University () is a public research university located in Makhanda (formerly Grahamstown) in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. It is one of four universities in the province.
Established in 1904, Rhodes University is the prov ...
found that 40% of the children in one camp suffered from
wasting
In medicine, wasting, also known as wasting syndrome, refers to the process by which a debilitating disease causes muscle and fat tissue to "waste" away. Wasting is sometimes referred to as "acute malnutrition" because it is believed that epis ...
caused by
malnutrition
Malnutrition occurs when an organism gets too few or too many nutrients, resulting in health problems. Specifically, it is a deficiency, excess, or imbalance of energy, protein and other nutrients which adversely affects the body's tissues a ...
, and 10% suffered from
kwashiorkor
Kwashiorkor ( , is also ) is a form of severe protein malnutrition characterized by edema and an enlarged liver with fatty infiltrates. It is thought to be caused by sufficient calorie intake, but with insufficient protein consumption (or lac ...
.
In another camp at
Thornhill, 50% of the children died before the age of 5.
Typhoid
Typhoid fever, also known simply as typhoid, is a disease caused by ''Salmonella enterica'' serotype Typhi bacteria, also called ''Salmonella'' Typhi. Symptoms vary from mild to severe, and usually begin six to 30 days after exposure. Often ther ...
epidemics also broke out in the resettlement camps, which were often isolated, located far from urban areas, and lacked health facilities, sanitation, and schools.
The forced relocations of blacks to the Ciskei resulted in high population densities in the homeland, a situation that persists to the present day.
On several occasions, the Ciskei government imposed
collective punishment
Collective punishment is a punishment or sanction imposed on a group or whole community for acts allegedly perpetrated by a member or some members of that group or area, which could be an ethnic or political group, or just the family, friends a ...
on communities that opposed its rule, and people fled the Bantustan back into South Africa proper, because of the harassment and denial of government services to dissenters.
In common with other Bantustans, its
independence was not recognised by the
international community
The international community is a term used in geopolitics and international relations to refer to a broad group of people and governments of the world.
Usage
Aside from its use as a general descriptor, the term is typically used to imply the ...
. Sebe once claimed that the
State of Israel
Israel, officially the State of Israel, is a country in West Asia. It Borders of Israel, shares borders with Lebanon to the north, Syria to the north-east, Jordan to the east, Egypt to the south-west, and the Mediterranean Sea to the west. Isr ...
had granted official recognition to Ciskei, but the
Israeli Foreign Ministry denied this.
Ciskei–Transkei hostilities and ''Operation Katzen''
In 1986 and 1987,
Transkei, a larger, wealthier, and more populous entity, undertook a series of military raids
on Ciskei,
and attempted to seize control of Ciskei. One of these raids was an attack on leader Lennox Sebe's compound, with the apparent goal of taking him hostage, in order to force a merger of the two Bantustans.
Transkei had previously granted sanctuary to Lennox Sebe's estranged brother,
Charles
Charles is a masculine given name predominantly found in English language, English and French language, French speaking countries. It is from the French form ''Charles'' of the Proto-Germanic, Proto-Germanic name (in runic alphabet) or ''* ...
, the former head of Ciskei's security forces, who had been imprisoned in Ciskei on charges of sedition,
in addition to previously kidnapping Lennox Sebe's son.
The South African government ostensibly intervened to warn the Transkei government off.
However, during a later meeting of the
Truth and Reconciliation Commission
A truth commission, also known as a truth and reconciliation commission or truth and justice commission, is an official body tasked with discovering and revealing past wrongdoing by a government (or, depending on the circumstances, non-state ac ...
, it was revealed that the plan to amalgamate the Transkei and Ciskei into a proposed ''Xhosaland'', as well as the freeing of Charles Sebe from prison, had been carried out by South African security forces linked to the
Civil Cooperation Bureau, in order to consolidate an anti-
ANC front in the Eastern Cape region, as part of the abortive ''Operation Katzen''.
Coup d'état
In 1990, Brigadier
Oupa Gqozo deposed Sebe and ruled as a
dictator
A dictator is a political leader who possesses absolute Power (social and political), power. A dictatorship is a state ruled by one dictator or by a polity. The word originated as the title of a Roman dictator elected by the Roman Senate to r ...
—despite an initial promise of a swift return to civilian rule. During 1991 and 1992, many of the legal foundations of apartheid in South Africa were removed, undermining the rationale for the homelands' continued existence. The
African National Congress
The African National Congress (ANC) is a political party in South Africa. It originated as a liberation movement known for its opposition to apartheid and has governed the country since 1994, when the 1994 South African general election, fir ...
pressed strongly for them to be reincorporated into South Africa. This was opposed by Gqozo and the other homeland leaders.
Bisho massacre
On 7 September 1992, the
Ciskei Defence Force fired into a crowd of ANC members (led by
Ronnie Kasrils,
Cyril Ramaphosa
Matamela Cyril Ramaphosa (born 17 November 1952) is a South African businessman and politician serving as the 5th and current President of South Africa since 2018. A former Anti-Apartheid Movement, anti-apartheid activist and trade union leade ...
, and
Chris Hani
Chris Hani (28 June 194210 April 1993; born Martin Thembisile Hani ) was a South African military commander, politician and revolutionary who served as the leader of the South African Communist Party (SACP) and chief of staff of uMkhonto we S ...
) who demanded the reincorporation of Ciskei into South Africa.
[
][
] 28 people were killed, and hundreds injured in the massacre outside the sports stadium in Bisho, the small capital of Ciskei.
Annexation
Gqozo refused to participate in the
negotiations
Negotiation is a dialogue between two or more parties to resolve points of difference, gain an advantage for an individual or Collective bargaining, collective, or craft outcomes to satisfy various interests. The parties aspire to agree on m ...
to agree to a
post-apartheid constitution for South Africa, and initially threatened to boycott the first non-racial elections. This became unsustainable, and in March 1994, Ciskei government workers went on strike for fear of losing their job security and pensions in the post-apartheid era. The police then mutinied, prompting Gqozo to resign on 22 March. The
Transitional Executive Council
The Transitional Executive Council (TEC) was a multiparty body in South Africa that was established by law to facilitate the transition to democracy, in the lead-up to the country's South African general election, 1994, first non-racial election ...
(TEC) appointed two administrators, who took control of the homeland to ensure security until the elections could be held the following month. The TEC also blocked the South African government from deploying the paramilitary Internal Stability Unit (ISU) of the South African Police force, as the unit was suspected of fomenting violence in other parts of the country after the Ciskei military had threatened to open fire on the ISU if it entered the territory.
On 27 April 1994, Ciskei and all of the other homelands were reincorporated into South Africa, after the first post-
apartheid
Apartheid ( , especially South African English: , ; , ) was a system of institutionalised racial segregation that existed in South Africa and South West Africa (now Namibia) from 1948 to the early 1990s. It was characterised by an ...
elections. Along with Transkei, Ciskei became part of the new
Eastern Cape Province
The Eastern Cape ( ; ) is one of the nine provinces of South Africa. Its capital is Bhisho, and its largest city is Gqeberha (Port Elizabeth). Due to its climate and nineteenth-century towns, it is a common location for tourists. It is also kno ...
, with its capital becoming the capital of the new province, and the former territory of the Ciskei forming parts of the
Buffalo City Metropolitan Municipality
The Buffalo City Metropolitan Municipality () is a metropolitan municipality situated on the east coast of the Eastern Cape province of South Africa. It includes the towns of East London, Bhisho and Qonce, as well as the large townships of Md ...
, the
Chris Hani District Municipality, and the
Amathole District Municipality—as of 2016.
Economy
According to historian
Quinn Slobodian, Ciskei, on the suggestion of a group of economists led by South African
Leon Louw -- called the “supply siders of Ciskei” by the ''
Financial Times
The ''Financial Times'' (''FT'') is a British daily newspaper printed in broadsheet and also published digitally that focuses on business and economic Current affairs (news format), current affairs. Based in London, the paper is owned by a Jap ...
'' --, was operated as a ''de facto''
export processing zone of South Africa. Its economy was centered around the textile industry, with a majority female workforce, and was reliant on Taiwanese and Hong Kong investors, generous investor incentives by the South African government (including paying the wages of their employees, subsidizing 80% of their factories' rents, and not charging corporate tax), and repression of the labour movement.
Districts in 1991
Districts of the province, and their populations at the 1991 census.
*
Alice
Alice may refer to:
* Alice (name), most often a feminine given name, but also used as a surname
Literature
* Alice (''Alice's Adventures in Wonderland''), a character in books by Lewis Carroll
* ''Alice'' series, children's and teen books by ...
: 43,452
*
Whittlesea: 50,199
*
Keiskammahoek: 32,740
*
Mdantsane
Mdantsane is a South African urban township situated 15 km away from East London and 37 km away from Qonce in the Eastern Cape. It is the second largest township in Eastern Cape and 17th largest in the Top 20 largest townships in So ...
: 105,117
*
Middledrift: 37,979
*
Peddie: 52,245
*
Zwelitsha: 142,779
*
Mpofu: 13,056
Law enforcement and defence
* Founded in 1981, the
Ciskei Defence Force consisted of two battalions and an air wing.
*
Ciskei Police
*
Ciskei Police - Law Enforcement Division
*
Ciskei Prisons Service
*
Ciskei Traffic Force
Notable persons
*
Ngconde Balfour – former South African politician, served as Minister of Correctional Services, and Minister of Sport.
*
Bantu Stephen Biko – former political activist, founder and the president of
Black Consciousness Movement
The Black Consciousness Movement (BCM) was a grassroots anti-apartheid activist movement that emerged in South Africa in the mid-1960s out of the political vacuum created by the jailing and banning of the African National Congress and Pan Af ...
.
*
Joshua Oupa Gqozo – former Ciskeian President, and military head of state.
*
Thandatha Jongilizwe Mabandla – former Ciskeian President, and Ciskeian Chief Justice.
*
Membathisi Mphumzi Shepherd Mdladlana – former minister of labour, politician, and
South African High Commissioner to Canada.
*
Raymond Mphakamisi Mhlaba – former South African politician and leader of the
ANC and
SACP
The South African Communist Party (SACP) is a communist party in South Africa. It was founded on 12 February 1921 as the Communist Party of South Africa (CPSA), and tactically dissolved itself in 1950 in the face of being declared illegal by t ...
and the first
Premier of the Eastern Cape
The premier of the Eastern Cape is the head of government of the Eastern Cape province of South Africa. The current premier of the Eastern Cape is Oscar Mabuyane, a member of the African National Congress, who was elected in the 2019 South Afric ...
1994–1997.
*
Wilton Zimasile Mkwayi – former anti-apartheid activist, and member of
ANC.
*
Griffiths Mlungisi Mxenge – former political activist, and member of ANC.
*
Bulelani Ngcuka – former NPA director (1999–2004).
*
Looksmart Khulile Ngudle – former political activist, and member of ANC.
*
Lennox Leslie Wongama Sebe – former Ciskeian President and dictator.
*
Xhanti Charles Sebe – former Ciskeian acting president and murder victim.
*
Archibald 'Archie' Mncedisi Sibeko – former anti-apartheid activist, and member of ANC.
*
Robert Mangaliso Sobukwe
Robert Mangaliso Sobukwe Order for Meritorious Service, OMSG (5 December 1924 – 27 February 1978) was a South African Internal resistance to apartheid, anti-apartheid revolutionary and founding member of the Pan Africanist Congress of Azania, ...
– former political activist and the founder of
PAC
Pac or PAC may refer to:
Aviation
* IATA code PAC Albrook "Marcos A. Gelabert" International Airport in Panama City, Panama
* Pacific Aerospace Corporation, New Zealand, manufacturer of aircraft:
** PAC 750XL
** PAC Cresco
** PAC CT/4
** PA ...
.
*
Moses Twebe – former anti-apartheid activist, and member of ANC.
See also
*
Transkei
Transkei ( , meaning ''the area beyond Great Kei River, he riverKei''), officially the Republic of Transkei (), was an list of historical unrecognized states and dependencies, unrecognised state in the southeastern region of South Africa f ...
*
Fengu people
*
List of heads of state of Ciskei
*
Vice President of Ciskei
*
Ciskei Defence Force
*
Bisho massacre
The Bisho massacre occurred on 7 September 1992 in Bisho, in the then nominally independent Bantustan, homeland of Ciskei which is now part of the Eastern Cape in South Africa. Twenty-eight African National Congress supporters and one soldier w ...
*
Ciskei International Airways
Books
* Mager, A.K. (1999) ''Gender and the Making of a South African Bantustan: A Social History of the Ciskei, 1945–1959'', Heinemann.
* Switzer, L. (1993) ''Power and Resistance in an African Society: The Ciskei Xhosa and the Making of South Africa'', University of Wisconsin Press.
References
External links
Ciskei – general informationCreation of tribalism in CiskeiCiskei International Airways CV-990Video showing a GIS time animation of the assembly of Ciskei
{{Authority control
Bantustans in South Africa
Former countries in Africa
Former republics
States and territories established in 1972
1972 establishments in South Africa
1994 disestablishments in South Africa
States and territories disestablished in 1994