Champa–Đại Việt War (1471)
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The Cham–Đại Việt War of 1471 or Vietnamese invasion of Champa was a military expedition launched by
Lê Thánh Tông Lê Thánh Tông (黎聖宗; 25 August 1442 – 3 March 1497), personal name Lê Hạo, temple name Thánh Tông, courtesy name Tư Thành, was an emperor of Đại Việt, reigning from 1460 to 1497, the fifth and the longest-reigning empero ...
of
Đại Việt Đại Việt (, ; literally Great Việt), was a Vietnamese monarchy in eastern Mainland Southeast Asia from the 10th century AD to the early 19th century, centered around the region of present-day Hanoi. Its early name, Đại Cồ Việt,(ch ...
under the
Lê dynasty The Lê dynasty, also known in historiography as the Later Lê dynasty (, chữ Hán: 朝後黎, chữ Nôm: 茹後黎), officially Đại Việt (; Chữ Hán: 大越), was the longest-ruling List of Vietnamese dynasties, Vietnamese dynasty, h ...
and is widely regarded as the event that marked the downfall of
Champa Champa (Cham language, Cham: ꨌꩌꨛꨩ, چمڤا; ; 占城 or 占婆) was a collection of independent Chams, Cham Polity, polities that extended across the coast of what is present-day Central Vietnam, central and southern Vietnam from ...
. In retaliation for Cham raids, Vietnamese forces attacked and sacked the kingdom's largest city-state,
Vijaya Vijaya may refer to: Places * Vijaya (Champa), a city-state and former capital of the historic Champa in what is now Vietnam * Vijayawada, a city in Andhra Pradesh, India People * Prince Vijaya of Sri Lanka (fl. 543–505 BC), earliest recorde ...
, and defeated the Cham army, bringing the kingdom of Champa to an end. After this war, the border between of Đại Việt and Champa was moved from
Hải Vân Pass The Hải Vân Pass (, , 'ocean cloud pass'), is an approximately long mountain pass on National Route 1 in Vietnam. It traverses a spur of the larger Annamite Range that juts into the South China Sea on the border of Đà Nẵng and Huế, near ...
to Cù Mông Pass from 1471 till 1611 when
Nguyễn lords The Nguyễn lords (, 主阮; 1558–1777, 1780–1802), also known as the Nguyễn clan (; ), were Nguyễn dynasty's forerunner and a feudal noble clan ruling southern Đại Việt in the Revival Lê dynasty. The Nguyễn lords were membe ...
launched another invasions into South of Phú Yên and annexed it in 1611.


Background

The Cham and the Vietnamese had a long history of conflict. In the course of their wars, peace often coincided with economic exhaustion, with the antagonists rebuilding their economies just to go to war again. When fighting resumed in 1471, the Champa kingdom found itself weakened and isolated. It had experienced numerous
civil war A civil war is a war between organized groups within the same Sovereign state, state (or country). The aim of one side may be to take control of the country or a region, to achieve independence for a region, or to change government policies.J ...
s and, at one point, had five different rulers. Because of the Cham's earlier attack on
Angkor Angkor ( , 'capital city'), also known as Yasodharapura (; ),Headly, Robert K.; Chhor, Kylin; Lim, Lam Kheng; Kheang, Lim Hak; Chun, Chen. 1977. ''Cambodian-English Dictionary''. Bureau of Special Research in Modern Languages. The Catholic Uni ...
, the
Khmers The Khmer people (, UNGEGN: , ALA-LC: ) are an Austroasiatic ethnic group native to Cambodia. They comprise over 95% of Cambodia's population of 17 million.https://web.archive.org/web/20191113151101/http://www.nis.gov.kh/nis/Census2019/Pro ...
ignored their request for assistance when Đại Việt invaded. After an expedition to
Champa Champa (Cham language, Cham: ꨌꩌꨛꨩ, چمڤا; ; 占城 or 占婆) was a collection of independent Chams, Cham Polity, polities that extended across the coast of what is present-day Central Vietnam, central and southern Vietnam from ...
in 1446, Vietnamese efforts to hold the Cham king as a vassal quickly failed and relations between the two kingdoms deteriorated. From the mid-15th century onward, Champa's power factually waned. No Vijaya Champa inscription or document survives after the last, which was erected in 1456, but this may have been due to the destruction of the mandalas in 1471 by the Vietnamese. The incompletely-studied decline of Champa, as historian
Michael Vickery Michael Theodore Vickery (April 1, 1931 – June 29, 2017) was an American historian, lecturer, and author known for his works about the history of Southeast Asia. Life Vickery was born on April 1, 1931, in Billings, Montana. After acquirin ...
has asserted, must be pieced together from Vietnamese and Chinese histories and competently restudied. According to the ''
Ming Shilu The ''Ming Veritable Records'' or ''Ming Shilu'' (), contains the imperial annals of the emperors of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644). It is the single largest historical source of information on the dynasty. According to modern historians, it "p ...
'', the Dai Viet launched a preliminary incursion into Champa in 1461, which forced the king's younger brother Mo-he-pan-luo-yue (摩訶槃羅悅) to flee to the mountains. The ruling king was Pan-luo-cha-quan (槃羅茶全), Panlotchatsuen (in Jesuit ''Notice Historique Sur la Cochinchine'') or Trà Toàn, who allegedly reigned from 1460 to 1471 until he was captured by the Dai Viet. The Cham also requested that
Ming China The Ming dynasty, officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming was the last imperial dynasty of ...
intervene and help bring the Vietnamese back in line by force and demarcate the border between Champa and Vietnam. China, however, only verbally rebuked the Vietnamese for their incursion, as the Ming Chinese sought to preserve trade and border security rather than continue expansion. The Vietnamese ignored the rebuke and proceeded with their plan to destroy their rival. The new Emperor of Dai Viet,
Lê Thánh Tông Lê Thánh Tông (黎聖宗; 25 August 1442 – 3 March 1497), personal name Lê Hạo, temple name Thánh Tông, courtesy name Tư Thành, was an emperor of Đại Việt, reigning from 1460 to 1497, the fifth and the longest-reigning empero ...
, was a Confucian student. One of his key goals in diplomacy was fostering a
Sinocentric Sinocentrism refers to a worldview that China is the cultural, political, or economic center of the world. Sinocentrism was a core concept in various Chinese dynasties. The Chinese considered themselves to be "all-under-Heaven", ruled by the ...
worldview among Southeast Asian states; he wanted to get rid of formal connection with other Southeast Asian kingdoms in a revolutionary effort to transform his kingdom from an 'eclectic Southeast Asian aristocratic model' to the bureaucratic one based on
Ming China The Ming dynasty, officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming was the last imperial dynasty of ...
's institutions. His focus on relations with Champa was "to bring civilization (Sinitic-leaning) to whom he considers uncivilized". To achieve his plan of overthrowing Champa, Thánh Tông spent years preparing the military, stockpiling provisions, and escalating incidents and animosity toward the Cham. These efforts included mobilization of huge manpower forces and in particular, the gunpowder unit, significantly drawn from the Ming model. Special emphasis was placed on weapons, transportation, and communications. Finally, Thánh Tông amplified and exaggerated Cham raids in his reports to the Ming, choosing them as pretexts for war against Champa.


Campaign

According to Vietnamese sources, in 1470 a Cham army numbering 100,000 under King
Maha Sajan Maha Sajan (died 1471) or Bàn La Trà Toàn, Panluo Chaquan (槃羅茶全) in Chinese sources, was king of Champa from 1460 to 1471, the year of the fall of Champa. In 1471, in a reaction to a Cham raid against Hóa Châu, the emperor Lê Thánh ...
arrived and besieged the Vietnamese garrison at
Huế Huế (formerly Thừa Thiên Huế province) is the southernmost coastal Municipalities of Vietnam, city in the North Central Coast region, the Central Vietnam, Central of Vietnam, approximately in the center of the country. It borders Quảng ...
. The local commander sent appeals to
Hanoi Hanoi ( ; ; ) is the Capital city, capital and List of cities in Vietnam, second-most populous city of Vietnam. The name "Hanoi" translates to "inside the river" (Hanoi is bordered by the Red River (Asia), Red and Black River (Asia), Black Riv ...
for help. Thánh Tông responded angrily to the attack. Within weeks, soldiers were mobilized, provisions were collected and transported south, and delegations hastened to inform the Ming court of what was planned. Three months later, during the
winter season Winter is the coldest and darkest season of the year in temperate and polar climates. It occurs after autumn and before spring. The tilt of Earth's axis causes seasons; winter occurs when a hemisphere is oriented away from the Sun. Diffe ...
, Thánh Tông published the detailed campaign orders to his generals and proclaiming in a long edict the reasons for the expedition. The edict routinely depicted the Cham as
subhuman ''SubHuman'' (stylized as ''subHuman'') is the sixth studio album by Recoil. Alan Wilder stated in a YouTube greeting that there would be a new album coming in spring or early summer 2007. On 23 April 2007, he released information regarding th ...
beasts. The emperor noted that "like animals, they eat their fill and forget their moral debt", and he declared that "in the south, we see a pig wallowing in the mud." In short, Thánh Tông's edict is considerably important to historians, because it might be regarded as a "classic, and literal, example of the dehumanising process necessary for and often a prelude to acts of
genocide Genocide is violence that targets individuals because of their membership of a group and aims at the destruction of a people. Raphael Lemkin, who first coined the term, defined genocide as "the destruction of a nation or of an ethnic group" by ...
." On November 28, 1470, a 100,000-strong Vietnamese naval expedition led by Thánh Tông himself set out from Hóa Châu to attack Champa, followed by another 150,000 civilian support personnel on December 8. The ''
Phủ biên tạp lục Fu () is a traditional administrative division of Chinese origin used in the East Asian cultural sphere, translated variously as commandery, prefecture, urban prefecture, or city. They were first instituted as a regular form of administrative di ...
'' states that the king reached Thuận Hóa citadel in early 1471, while the '' Toàn thư'' says he sailed straight to Champa. Fighting started on February 24, 1471, when five hundred Vietnamese warships and 30,000 troops were ordered forth to block the way of 5,000 reinforced Cham troops and elephants at Bay of Sa Kỳ (20 miles south of
Quảng Ngãi Quảng Ngãi () is a city in central Vietnam. It serves as the capital city of Quảng Ngãi Province. Quảng Ngãi City borders Tư Nghĩa District to the South and West, Sơn Tịnh District to the Northwest and Bình Sơn District to the ...
). Then one thousand warships and 70,000 troops followed under the leadership of Thánh Tông, trying to flank Cham positions from the north. The fleet began disembarking troops on land near
Hội An Hội An () is a city of approximately 120,000 people in Vietnam's Quảng Nam Province, registered as a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1999. Along with the Cù Lao Chàm archipelago, it is part of the Cù Lao Chàm-Hội An Biosphere Reserve ...
(Great Chiêm Estuary) and began engaging Cham defenders. Meanwhile, another Vietnamese column quietly moved west of the mountains. After bitter fighting, the Cham withdrew their lines from the coast to inland, where they realized that they had been surrounded by invaders from three sides: from the north, from the western mountains, and from the sea. On February 26, using heavy artillery, the king besieged and captured the Mễ Cần citadel in Quảng Ngãi, killing 300 Chams. The Vietnamese continued to advance, using gunpowder superiority to curb war elephants, pushing the Cham army toward the capital of
Vijaya Vijaya may refer to: Places * Vijaya (Champa), a city-state and former capital of the historic Champa in what is now Vietnam * Vijayawada, a city in Andhra Pradesh, India People * Prince Vijaya of Sri Lanka (fl. 543–505 BC), earliest recorde ...
(Cha Ban).


Siege of Vijaya

After two weeks of fierce fighting, one-third of Champa territory corresponding to today’s
Đà Nẵng Da Nang or DanangSee also Danang Dragons (, ) is the list of cities in Vietnam, fifth-largest city in Vietnam by municipal population. It lies on the coast of the Western Pacific Ocean of Vietnam at the mouth of the Hàn River (Vietnam), Hàn R ...
, Quảng Nam, and
Quảng Ngãi Quảng Ngãi () is a city in central Vietnam. It serves as the capital city of Quảng Ngãi Province. Quảng Ngãi City borders Tư Nghĩa District to the South and West, Sơn Tịnh District to the Northwest and Bình Sơn District to the ...
had been taken by the Vietnamese. Thánh Tông's army then marched south toward Bình Định, main center of the Champa Kingdom. Nearby Thị Nại citadel on the coast was captured on March 18, and 400 Cham were killed. Thánh Tông then converged his armies to surround the city of Vijaya (12 miles west of Thị Nại) on March 19, where the Champa king was seeking refuge inside. According to Vietnamese sources, the Cham king Trà Toàn apparently tried to compromise and make an agreement for his kingdom's surrender, but Thánh Tông ignored him and continued the siege. The attackers surrounded Vijaya by multiple circumventing lines of fences and trenches, cutting off the besieged defenders from relief while launching non-stop terrifying bombardments and scaling ladder attacks against the city's wall defenders. This came at a massive financial cost, since it drained the Vietnamese treasury of 1,000 gold liang a day. The Vietnamese forces used
cannon A cannon is a large-caliber gun classified as a type of artillery, which usually launches a projectile using explosive chemical propellant. Gunpowder ("black powder") was the primary propellant before the invention of smokeless powder during th ...
s to bombard the Cham capital, Vijaya, blasting a breach in the east of the city's walls prior to storming the city. On March 22, the city fell after a four-day siege. More than 30,000 Chams were captured, including Trà Toàn and his family members, who were deported to the north, and over 60,000 killed. Another 40,000 were executed. The Malay Annals accounts for the fall of Champa mention that the king of Kuchi (Đại Việt) sent messengers to the Treasure Minister of Champa, deceiving him to defect and open the city gate. At dawn the men of Đại Việt entered the city and vanquished the Cham defenders with ease, Vak (Vijaya) fell and the king of Champa was slain.


Aftermath

The balance of power maintained between the Cham and the Vietnamese for more than 500 years came to an end with the destruction of the Champa kingdom. The Vietnamese enslaved several thousand Chams and forced Chams to assimilate into Vietnamese culture. The number included 50 members of the royal family. In 1509, Thánh Tông's grandson,
Lê Uy Mục Lê Uy Mục (chữ Hán: 黎威穆; 5May 148820January 1510), also called Lê Tuấn (黎濬), was the eighth emperor of the later Lê dynasty of Vietnam. He was the second son of Emperor Lê Hiến Tông and the elder half-brother of his direct ...
, carried out a massacre against remaining Cham royal members and slaves in the neighborhood of the capital
Hanoi Hanoi ( ; ; ) is the Capital city, capital and List of cities in Vietnam, second-most populous city of Vietnam. The name "Hanoi" translates to "inside the river" (Hanoi is bordered by the Red River (Asia), Red and Black River (Asia), Black Riv ...
. In autumn of that year, the king also issued execution orders for all remaining Cham prisoners that had been captured in the 1471 war. A Cham general, Bố Trì Trì, fled and established himself as the ruler of the
rump state A rump state is the remnant of a once much larger state that was reduced in the wake of secession, annexation, occupation, decolonization, a successful coup d'état or revolution on part of its former territory. In the last case, a government st ...
of Panduranga (modern
Phan Rang Phan may refer to: * Phan (surname), a Vietnamese family name * Phan District, Chiang Rai Province, Thailand * Phan River The Phan River () is a river of Bình Thuận Province, Vietnam.Vietnam Administrative Atlas, NXB Bản Đồ, 2004 It flo ...
), more than 250 kilometers to the south. That state lasted until 1832, when emperor
Minh Mạng Minh Mạng (), also known as Minh Mệnh (, vi-hantu, 明 命, lit. "the bright favour of Heaven"; 25 May 1791 – 20 January 1841; born Nguyễn Phúc Đảm, also known as Nguyễn Phúc Kiểu), was the second emperor of the Nguyễ ...
initiated the final conquest of the remnants of Champa. Trì Trì and two others, a ruler in the Central Highlands (the region of
Kon Tum Kon Tum is the capital city of Kon Tum Province in Vietnam. It is located inland in the Central Highlands region of Vietnam, near the borders of Laos and Cambodia. Historically, this area has been inhabited by the indigenous Ba Na people, whic ...
and
Pleiku Pleiku is a city in central Vietnam, located in the Central Highlands region. It is the capital of the Gia Lai Province. Many years ago, it was inhabited primarily by the Bahnar and Jarai ethnic groups, sometimes known as the Montagnards or De ...
) and a ruler on the coast immediately to the south of Bình Định (in the modern provinces of Phú Yên and Khánh Hòa), subsequently submitted to Thánh Tông as vassals. In the conquered land, king Thánh Tông established Quảng Nam as Đại Việt's 13th province, with 42 military colonies (''Đồn điền''), setting up administration, customary, regulations,... according to Vietnamese Confucian establishment. Đỗ Tử Quy was appointed as governor of Quảng Nam. Cham representatives told the
Ming Empire The Ming dynasty, officially the Great Ming, was an imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming was the last imperial dynasty of China ruled by the Han people, ...
that Annam destroyed their country. The Chinese
Ming Dynasty The Ming dynasty, officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming was the last imperial dynasty of ...
records evidence the extent of the Vietnamese destruction wrought on Champa. The Chams informed the Ming that they continued to fight against the Vietnamese occupation of their land, which had been turned into the 13th province of Đại Việt. In 1474, Bố Trì Trì rebelled against the Vietnamese by mounting guerilla warfare in the western mountainous jungles with Trà Toàn's son Trà Toại. Thánh Tông sent Lê Niệm and 30,000 soldiers to Panduranga, where they put down the Cham revolt, captured Trà Toại and imprisoned him in a dungeon at Hanoi. Cham resistance continued in the mountains and valleys in the south. The Ming annals recorded in 1485 that "Champa is a distant and dangerous place, and Annam is still employing troops there." The
Vietnamese ceramics Vietnamese ceramics refers to ceramic art and pottery as a form of Vietnamese art and industry. Vietnamese pottery and ceramics has a long history spanning back to thousands of years ago, including long before Chinese domination, as archeologica ...
trade was severely affected due to the impact suffered by the Cham merchants after the invasion. The Ming scholar Wu Pu (吳樸) recommended that to help stop the Vietnamese, Ming should help resuscitate the Champa Kingdom. The Ming dynasty however did not follow his recommendation, due to internal security concerns. A massive wave of Cham emigration radiated out across Southeast Asia. In Cambodia, Cham refugees were welcomed, but the sources do not describe how they arrived in Cambodia and where they settled. In Thailand, there are records of Cham presence since the Ayudhaya period. In the Indonesian archipelago, the ''
Sejarah Melayu The ''Malay Annals'' ( Malay: ''Sejarah Melayu'', Jawi: ), originally titled ''Sulalatus Salatin'' (''Genealogy of Kings''), is a literary work that gives a romanticised history of the origin, evolution and destruction of the Malacca Sultanat ...
'' (Malay Annals) relates that after the collapse of Vijaya in 1471, two Cham princes named Indera Berma Shah and Shah Palembang sought asylum in
Melaka Malacca (), officially the Historic State of Malacca (), is a state in Malaysia located in the southern region of the Malay Peninsula, facing the Strait of Malacca. The state is bordered by Negeri Sembilan to the north and west and Johor to t ...
and
Aceh Aceh ( , ; , Jawi script, Jawoë: ; Van Ophuijsen Spelling System, Old Spelling: ''Atjeh'') is the westernmost Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia. It is located on the northern end of Sumatra island, with Banda Aceh being its capit ...
. Shortly after his conversion to Islam, Indera Berma Shah was appointed minister at the court of Sultan
Mansur Shah Sultan Mansur Shah ibni Almarhum Sultan Muzaffar Shah ( Jawi: ; died 1477) was the 6th Sultan of Malacca from 1459 to 1477. He ascended the throne after the death of his father, Muzaffar Shah. He's also one of the capable sultans of Malacca beca ...
. The ''Sejarah Melayu'' also mentions Cham presence in
Pahang {{Infobox political division , name = Pahang , official_name = Pahang Darul Makmur , native_name = , settlement_type = States and federal territories of Malaysia, State , image_skyline = , imagesize ...
and
Kelantan Kelantan (; Kelantan-Pattani Malay, Kelantanese Malay: ''Klate''; ) is a state in Malaysia. The capital, Kota Bharu, includes the royal seat of Kubang Kerian. The honorific, honorific name of the state is ''Darul Naim'' ("The Blissful Abode"). ...
, where the Kampung Laut Mosque is said to have been built by Champa sailors on their way to
Java Java is one of the Greater Sunda Islands in Indonesia. It is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the south and the Java Sea (a part of Pacific Ocean) to the north. With a population of 156.9 million people (including Madura) in mid 2024, proje ...
. The Ming Empire sent a censor, Ch'en Chun, to Champa in 1474 to install the Champa King, but his entry was blocked by Vietnamese soldiers who had taken over Champa. He proceeded to Malacca instead and its ruler sent back tribute to the
Ming dynasty The Ming dynasty, officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming was the last imperial dynasty of ...
. Malacca sent envoys again in 1481 to inform the Ming that, while going back to Malacca in 1469 from a trip to China, the Vietnamese attacked them, castrating the young and enslaving them. The Malaccans reported that Đại Việt was in control of Champa and sought to conquer Malacca, but the Malaccans did not fight back, due to a lack of permission from the Ming to engage in war. The Ming Emperor scolded them, ordering the Malaccans to strike back with violent force if the Vietnamese attacked. However, as Đại Việt's power declined during the sixteenth century, the rise of the Burmese Empire under
Tabinshweti Tabinshwehti (, ; 16 April 1516 – 30 April 1550) was King of Burma from 1530 to 1550, and the founder of the First Toungoo Empire. His military campaigns (1534–1549) created the largest kingdom in Burma since the fall of the Pagan Empire in ...
and
Bayinnaung , title = King of Toungoo , image = Bayinnaung.JPG , caption = Statue of Bayinnaung in front of the National Museum of Myanmar , reign = 30 April 1550 – 10 October 1581 , coronation = 11 January 1551 at Taungoo, ...
to become the major force in mainland Southeast Asia had put an end to Vietnamese expansion. More ethnic Vietnamese had moved south and settled on conquered Cham lands. Only the small Cham kingdom of Panduranga remained in the south. Having suffered a large number of population loss in a short period of time–though accurate figures are impossible to determine for lack of usable statistics–the Cham would never regain a significant power position until being fully annexed in the 19th century. Around 162,000
Cham Cham or CHAM may refer to: Ethnicities and languages *Chams, people in Vietnam and Cambodia **Cham language, the language of the Cham people ***Cham script *** Cham (Unicode block), a block of Unicode characters of the Cham script * Cham Albani ...
remain in Vietnam today. Several historians believe the 1471 Vietnamese attack on Champa and extraordinary violence against Cham civilians satisfies the modern
definition A definition is a statement of the meaning of a term (a word, phrase, or other set of symbols). Definitions can be classified into two large categories: intensional definitions (which try to give the sense of a term), and extensional definitio ...
of
genocide Genocide is violence that targets individuals because of their membership of a group and aims at the destruction of a people. Raphael Lemkin, who first coined the term, defined genocide as "the destruction of a nation or of an ethnic group" by ...
as the mass-killings were systemically delivered with the aim of destroying a particular nation or group; in this case, the Cham people, who experienced an "inexorable demographic decline" as the most notable consequence of the conquest. Not only that, the sudden Cham population collapse recorded in the occupied regions was hastened by state-organized movements of
settlers A settler or a colonist is a person who establishes or joins a permanent presence that is separate to existing communities. The entity that a settler establishes is a Human settlement, settlement. A settler is called a pioneer if they are among ...
moving into and permanently eliminating the existing Cham society and replacing it with the society of the Vietnamese colonizers.


Subsequent Islamization of the Chams

It is generally believed that the Vietnamese conquest of Champa in 1471 had directly contributed to the eventual conversion to
Islam Islam is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the Quran, and the teachings of Muhammad. Adherents of Islam are called Muslims, who are estimated to number Islam by country, 2 billion worldwide and are the world ...
by the majority of Cham population. Even before the Vietnamese conquest, Islam had already started to make ground in Champa by the 10th century, but only by this war that Islam finally hastily established the foothold among the Cham population; it was believed that in order to resist the increasingly aggressive Confucian-Buddhist Vietnamese expansion, conversion to Islam made it an important component of the Cham identity and to seek protection from the Islamic World (dar al-Islam) against Vietnamese aggression.


References


Sources

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * {{DEFAULTSORT:Cham-Annamese War (1471) History of Champa 15th century in Vietnam Conflicts in 1471 Wars involving Champa Wars involving Đại Việt 1470s in Asia History of Bình Định province