Canada–United States Border
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The international border between
Canada Canada is a country in North America. Its Provinces and territories of Canada, ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, making it the world's List of coun ...
and the
United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...
is the longest in the world by total length. The boundary (including boundaries in the
Great Lakes The Great Lakes, also called the Great Lakes of North America, are a series of large interconnected freshwater lakes spanning the Canada–United States border. The five lakes are Lake Superior, Superior, Lake Michigan, Michigan, Lake Huron, H ...
, Atlantic, and Pacific coasts) is long. The land border has two sections: Canada's border with the northern tier of the
contiguous United States The contiguous United States, also known as the U.S. mainland, officially referred to as the conterminous United States, consists of the 48 adjoining U.S. states and the District of Columbia of the United States in central North America. The te ...
to its south, and with the U.S. state of
Alaska Alaska ( ) is a non-contiguous U.S. state on the northwest extremity of North America. Part of the Western United States region, it is one of the two non-contiguous U.S. states, alongside Hawaii. Alaska is also considered to be the north ...
to its west. The bi-national International Boundary Commission deals with matters relating to marking and maintaining the boundary, and the
International Joint Commission The International Joint Commission () is a bi-national organization established by the governments of the United States and Canada under the Boundary Waters Treaty of 1909. Its responsibilities were expanded with the signing of the Great L ...
deals with issues concerning boundary waters. The agencies responsible for facilitating legal passage through the international boundary are the
Canada Border Services Agency The Canada Border Services Agency (CBSA; , ''ASFC'') is a federal law enforcement agency that is responsible for border guard, border control (i.e. protection and surveillance), immigration enforcement, and Customs, customs services in Canada. ...
(CBSA) and
U.S. Customs and Border Protection United States Customs and Border Protection (CBP) is the largest federal law enforcement agency of the United States Department of Homeland Security. It is the country's primary border control organization, charged with regulating and facilita ...
(CBP).


History


18th century

The Treaty of Paris of 1783 ended the
American Revolutionary War The American Revolutionary War (April 19, 1775 – September 3, 1783), also known as the Revolutionary War or American War of Independence, was the armed conflict that comprised the final eight years of the broader American Revolution, in which Am ...
between
Great Britain Great Britain is an island in the North Atlantic Ocean off the north-west coast of continental Europe, consisting of the countries England, Scotland, and Wales. With an area of , it is the largest of the British Isles, the List of European ...
and the United States. In the second article of the Treaty, the parties agreed on all boundaries of the United States, including, but not limited to, the boundary to the north along what was then
British North America British North America comprised the colonial territories of the British Empire in North America from 1783 onwards. English colonisation of North America began in the 16th century in Newfoundland, then further south at Roanoke and Jamestown, ...
. The agreed-upon boundary included the line from the northwest angle of
Nova Scotia Nova Scotia is a Provinces and territories of Canada, province of Canada, located on its east coast. It is one of the three Maritime Canada, Maritime provinces and Population of Canada by province and territory, most populous province in Atlan ...
to the northwesternmost head of the
Connecticut River The Connecticut River is the longest river in the New England region of the United States, flowing roughly southward for through four states. It rises 300 yards (270 m) south of the U.S. border with Quebec, Canada, and discharges into Long Isl ...
and proceeded down along the middle of the river to the 45th parallel of north latitude. The parallel had been established in the 1760s as the boundary between the provinces of
Quebec Quebec is Canada's List of Canadian provinces and territories by area, largest province by area. Located in Central Canada, the province shares borders with the provinces of Ontario to the west, Newfoundland and Labrador to the northeast, ...
and New York (including what would later become the State of Vermont). It was surveyed and marked by John Collins and Thomas Valentine from 1771 to 1773. The
St. Lawrence River The St. Lawrence River (, ) is a large international river in the middle latitudes of North America connecting the Great Lakes to the North Atlantic Ocean. Its waters flow in a northeasterly direction from Lake Ontario to the Gulf of St. Lawren ...
and the Great Lakes became the boundary further west, between the United States and what is now
Ontario Ontario is the southernmost Provinces and territories of Canada, province of Canada. Located in Central Canada, Ontario is the Population of Canada by province and territory, country's most populous province. As of the 2021 Canadian census, it ...
. Northwest of
Lake Superior Lake Superior is the largest freshwater lake in the world by surface areaThe Caspian Sea is the largest lake, but is saline, not freshwater. Lake Michigan–Huron has a larger combined surface area than Superior, but is normally considered tw ...
, the boundary followed rivers to the
Lake of the Woods Lake of the Woods (; ) is a lake occupying parts of the Canadian provinces of Ontario and Manitoba and the U.S. state of Minnesota. Lake of the Woods is over long and wide, containing more than 14,552 islands and of shoreline. It is fed by t ...
. From the northwesternmost point of the Lake of the Woods, the boundary was agreed to go straight west until it met the
Mississippi River The Mississippi River is the main stem, primary river of the largest drainage basin in the United States. It is the second-longest river in the United States, behind only the Missouri River, Missouri. From its traditional source of Lake Ita ...
. That line never meets the river since the river's source is farther south, so the border was eventually drawn from the lake's northwestern point south to the 49th Parallel.


Jay Treaty (1794)

The
Jay Treaty The Treaty of Amity, Commerce, and Navigation, Between His Britannic Majesty and the United States of America, commonly known as the Jay Treaty, and also as Jay's Treaty, was a 1794 treaty between the United States and Great Britain that averted ...
of 1794 (effective 1796) created the International Boundary Commission, which was charged with surveying and mapping the boundary. It also provided for the removal of British forces from
Detroit Detroit ( , ) is the List of municipalities in Michigan, most populous city in the U.S. state of Michigan. It is situated on the bank of the Detroit River across from Windsor, Ontario. It had a population of 639,111 at the 2020 United State ...
, as well as other frontier outposts on the U.S. side. The Jay Treaty was superseded by the
Treaty of Ghent The Treaty of Ghent () was the peace treaty that ended the War of 1812 between the United States and the United Kingdom. It took effect in February 1815. Both sides signed it on December 24, 1814, in the city of Ghent, United Netherlands (now in ...
(effective 1815) concluding the
War of 1812 The War of 1812 was fought by the United States and its allies against the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, United Kingdom and its allies in North America. It began when the United States United States declaration of war on the Uni ...
, which included pre-war boundaries.


19th century

Signed in December 1814, the Treaty of Ghent ended the War of 1812, returning the boundaries of British North America and the United States to the state they were before the war. In the following decades, the United States and the United Kingdom concluded several treaties that settled the major boundary disputes between the two, enabling the border to be
demilitarized A demilitarized zone (DMZ or DZ) is an area in which treaties or agreements between states, military powers or contending groups forbid military installations, activities, or personnel. A DZ often lies along an established frontier or boundary ...
. The Rush–Bagot Treaty of 1817 provided a plan for demilitarizing the two combatant sides in the War of 1812 and also laid out preliminary principles for drawing a border between British North America and the United States.


London Convention (1818)

The
Treaty of 1818 The Convention respecting fisheries, boundary and the restoration of slaves, also known as the London Convention, Anglo-American Convention of 1818, Convention of 1818, or simply the Treaty of 1818, is an international treaty signed in 1818 betw ...
saw the expansion of both British North America and the United States, with their boundary extending westward along the 49th parallel, from the
Northwest Angle The Northwest Angle, known simply as the Angle by locals, and coextensive with Angle Township, is a pene-exclave of northern Lake of the Woods County, Minnesota. Excluding surveying errors, it is the only place in the contiguous United States ...
at Lake of the Woods to the
Rocky Mountains The Rocky Mountains, also known as the Rockies, are a major mountain range and the largest mountain system in North America. The Rocky Mountains stretch in great-circle distance, straight-line distance from the northernmost part of Western Can ...
. While the
Laurentian Divide The Laurentian Divide also called the Northern Divide and locally the '' height of land'', is a continental divide in central North America that separates the Hudson Bay watershed to the north from the Gulf of Mexico watershed to the south and ...
had previously been agreed to as a border, the flatness of the terrain made it difficult to locate this line. The treaty extinguished British claims to the south of the 49th in the
Red River Valley The Red River Valley is a region in central North America that is drained by the Red River of the North; it is part of both Canada and the United States. Forming the border between Minnesota and North Dakota when these territories were admitted ...
, which was part of
Rupert's Land Rupert's Land (), or Prince Rupert's Land (), was a territory in British North America which comprised the Hudson Bay drainage basin. The right to "sole trade and commerce" over Rupert's Land was granted to Hudson's Bay Company (HBC), based a ...
. The treaty also extinguished U.S. claims to land north of the 49th in the watershed of the
Missouri River The Missouri River is a river in the Central United States, Central and Mountain states, Mountain West regions of the United States. The nation's longest, it rises in the eastern Centennial Mountains of the Bitterroot Range of the Rocky Moun ...
, which was part of the
Louisiana Purchase The Louisiana Purchase () was the acquisition of the Louisiana (New France), territory of Louisiana by the United States from the French First Republic in 1803. This consisted of most of the land in the Mississippi River#Watershed, Mississipp ...
. Along the 49th parallel, the border vista is theoretically straight, but in practice, it follows the 19th-century surveyed border markers and varies by several hundred feet in spots.


Webster–Ashburton Treaty (1842)

Disputes over the interpretation of the border treaties and mistakes in surveying required additional negotiations, which resulted in the
Webster–Ashburton Treaty The Webster–Ashburton Treaty, signed August 9, 1842, was a treaty that resolved several border issues between the United States and the British North American colonies (the region that later became the Dominion of Canada). Negotiated in the U ...
of 1842. The treaty resolved the
Aroostook War The Aroostook War (sometimes called the Pork and Beans WarLe Duc, Thomas (1947). The Maine Frontier and the Northeastern Boundary Controversy. ''The American Historical Review'' Vol. 53, No. 1 (Oct., 1947), pp. 30–41), or the Madawaska War, w ...
, a dispute over the boundary between
Maine Maine ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the New England region of the United States, and the northeasternmost state in the Contiguous United States. It borders New Hampshire to the west, the Gulf of Maine to the southeast, and the Provinces and ...
,
New Brunswick New Brunswick is a Provinces and Territories of Canada, province of Canada, bordering Quebec to the north, Nova Scotia to the east, the Gulf of Saint Lawrence to the northeast, the Bay of Fundy to the southeast, and the U.S. state of Maine to ...
, and the
Province of Canada The Province of Canada (or the United Province of Canada or the United Canadas) was a British colony in British North America from 1841 to 1867. Its formation reflected recommendations made by John Lambton, 1st Earl of Durham, in the Report ...
. The treaty redefined the border between
New Hampshire New Hampshire ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the New England region of the Northeastern United States. It borders Massachusetts to the south, Vermont to the west, Maine and the Gulf of Maine to the east, and the Canadian province of Quebec t ...
, Vermont, and New York on the one hand, and the Province of Canada on the other, resolving the Indian Stream dispute and the Fort Blunder dilemma at the outlet to
Lake Champlain Lake Champlain ( ; , ) is a natural freshwater lake in North America. It mostly lies between the U.S. states of New York (state), New York and Vermont, but also extends north into the Canadian province of Quebec. The cities of Burlington, Ve ...
. The part of the 45th parallel that separates Quebec from the U.S. states of Vermont and New York had first been surveyed from 1771 to 1773 after it had been declared the boundary between New York (including what later became Vermont) and Quebec. It was surveyed again after the War of 1812. The U.S. federal government began to construct fortifications just south of the border at
Rouses Point, New York Rouses Point is a village (New York), village in Clinton County, New York, Clinton County, New York (state), New York, United States, along the 45th parallel north, 45th parallel. The population was 2,209 at the 2010 census. The village is named ...
, on Lake Champlain. After a significant portion of the construction was completed, measurements revealed that at that point, the actual 45th parallel was three-quarters of a mile (1.2 km) south of the surveyed line. The fort, which became known as " Fort Blunder", was in Canada, which created a dilemma for the U.S. that was not resolved until a provision of the treaty left the border on the meandering line as surveyed. The border along the
Boundary Waters The Boundary Waters, also called the Quetico-Superior Country, is a region of wilderness straddling the Canada–United States border between Ontario and Minnesota, in the area just west of Lake Superior. While "Boundary Waters" is a common nam ...
in present-day Ontario and
Minnesota Minnesota ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Upper Midwestern region of the United States. It is bordered by the Canadian provinces of Manitoba and Ontario to the north and east and by the U.S. states of Wisconsin to the east, Iowa to the so ...
between Lake Superior and the Northwest Angle was also redefined.


Oregon Treaty (1846)

An 1844 boundary dispute during the Presidency of James K. Polk led to a call for the northern boundary of the U.S. west of the Rockies to be 54°40′N related to the southern boundary of Russia's Alaska Territory. However, the United Kingdom wanted a border that followed the
Columbia River The Columbia River (Upper Chinook language, Upper Chinook: ' or '; Sahaptin language, Sahaptin: ''Nch’i-Wàna'' or ''Nchi wana''; Sinixt dialect'' '') is the largest river in the Pacific Northwest region of North America. The river headwater ...
to the Pacific Ocean. The dispute was resolved in the
Oregon Treaty The Oregon Treaty was a treaty between the United Kingdom and the United States that was signed on June 15, 1846, in Washington, D.C. The treaty brought an end to the Oregon boundary dispute by settling competing American and British claims to ...
of 1846, which established the 49th parallel as the boundary through the Rockies.


Boundary surveys (mid–19th century)

The Northwest Boundary Survey (1857–1861) laid out the land boundary. However, the water boundary was not settled for some time. After the Pig War in 1859, arbitration in 1872 established the border between the
Gulf Islands The Gulf Islands is a group of islands in the Salish Sea between Vancouver Island and the British Columbia Coast, mainland coast of British Columbia. Etymology The name "Gulf Islands" comes from "Gulf of Georgia", the original term used by Geor ...
and the
San Juan Islands The San Juan Islands is an archipelago in the Pacific Northwest of the United States between the U.S. state of Washington and Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada. The San Juan Islands are part of Washington state, and form the core of ...
. The International Boundary Survey (or, the "Northern Boundary Survey" in the U.S.) began in 1872. Its mandate was to establish the border as agreed to in the Treaty of 1818. Archibald Campbell led the way for the United States, while Donald Cameron, supported by chief astronomer Samuel Anderson, headed the British team. This survey focused on the border from the Lake of the Woods to the summit of the Rocky Mountains.


20th century

In 1903, following a dispute that arose because of the Klondike Gold Rush, a joint United Kingdom–Canada–U.S. tribunal established the boundary of southeast Alaska. On April 11, 1908, it was agreed under Article IV of the "Treaty Between the United States of America and the United Kingdom Concerning the Boundary Between the United States and the Dominion of Canada from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean" to survey and delimit the boundary between Canada and the U.S. through the St. Lawrence River and Great Lakes by modern surveying techniques, which accomplished several changes to the border. In 1925, the International Boundary Commission's temporary mission became permanent for maintaining the survey and mapping of the border, maintaining boundary monuments and buoys, and keeping the border clear of brush and vegetation for , establishing a " border vista" extending for 3 m (10 ft) on each side of the line. In 1909, under the Boundary Waters Treaty, the
International Joint Commission The International Joint Commission () is a bi-national organization established by the governments of the United States and Canada under the Boundary Waters Treaty of 1909. Its responsibilities were expanded with the signing of the Great L ...
was established for Canada and the U.S. to investigate and approve projects that affect the waters and waterways along the border.


21st century

As a result of the 2001
September 11 attacks The September 11 attacks, also known as 9/11, were four coordinated Islamist terrorist suicide attacks by al-Qaeda against the United States in 2001. Nineteen terrorists hijacked four commercial airliners, crashing the first two into ...
, the U.S. declared a level 1 alert at its borders, which required intrusive inspections of all crossing vehicles and passengers, resulting in considerable border congestion. Canada's Chrétien government worked with the U.S. Bush administration to make the border both more secure and less of an impediment for high-value goods and low-risk travellers, and on 12 December 2001 the '' Smart Border Declaration'' was signed. The agreement pioneered border innovations that have become common worldwide, such as cargo and passenger preclearance, the
Free and Secure Trade The Free and Secure Trade (FAST) program is a joint United States-Canadian program between the Canada Border Services Agency and the U.S. Customs and Border Protection. The FAST initiative offers pre-authorized importers, carriers and drivers expe ...
(FAST) program, and the NEXUS trusted traveller program. The mutual cooperation established by the ''Smart Border'' initiative made it easier to restrict border traffic during the
COVID-19 pandemic The COVID-19 pandemic (also known as the coronavirus pandemic and COVID pandemic), caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), began with an disease outbreak, outbreak of COVID-19 in Wuhan, China, in December ...
in 2020.


2020–2021 closure

In response to the
COVID-19 pandemic in Canada The COVID-19 pandemic in Canada is part of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, worldwide pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (). It is caused by SARS-CoV-2, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Most cases over the course o ...
and the United States, the governments of Canada and the United States agreed to close the border to "non-essential" travel on March 21, 2020, for an initial period of 30 days. The closure was extended 15 times. In mid-June 2021, the Canadian government announced it would ease some entry requirements for fully vaccinated Canadian citizens, permanent residents, and foreign nationals starting on July 5. The closure finally expired on July 21. In mid-July, the Canadian government announced that fully vaccinated American citizens and permanent residents could visit Canada starting August 9. The American government reopened its land border to fully vaccinated Canadian citizens effective November 8. The 2020–21 closure was reportedly the first long-term blanket closure of the border since the War of 1812. Business advocacy groups, noting the substantial economic impact of the closure on both sides of the border, called for more nuanced restrictions in place of the blanket ban on non-essential travel. The Northern Border Caucus, a group in the
U.S. Congress The United States Congress is the legislative branch of the federal government of the United States. It is a bicameral legislature, including a lower body, the U.S. House of Representatives, and an upper body, the U.S. Senate. They both ...
composed of members from border communities, made similar suggestions to the governments of both countries. Beyond the closure itself, US President
Donald Trump Donald John Trump (born June 14, 1946) is an American politician, media personality, and businessman who is the 47th president of the United States. A member of the Republican Party (United States), Republican Party, he served as the 45 ...
also initially suggested the idea of deploying United States military personnel near the border with Canada in connection with the pandemic. He later abandoned the idea following vocal opposition from Canadian officials.


Second Trump term

In 2025, US President Trump proposed redrawing the border and re-negotiating water agreements for the Great Lakes, or even annexing Canada, eliminating the border.


Security


Law enforcement approach

The International Boundary is commonly said to be the world's "longest undefended border"—it is not militarized, although civilian law enforcement is present. It is illegal to cross the border outside border controls, as anyone crossing the border must be checked under immigration and customs laws. The relatively low level of security measures contrasts with the
United States–Mexico border United may refer to: Places * United, Pennsylvania, an unincorporated community * United, West Virginia, an unincorporated community Arts and entertainment Films * ''United'' (2003 film), a Norwegian film * ''United'' (2011 film), a BBC Two f ...
, one-third as long as the Canada–U.S. border, which is actively patrolled by U.S. Customs and Border Protection personnel to prevent
illegal immigration Illegal immigration is the migration of people into a country in violation of that country's immigration laws, or the continuous residence in a country without the legal right to do so. Illegal immigration tends to be financially upward, wi ...
and
drug trafficking A drug is any chemical substance other than a nutrient or an essential dietary ingredient, which, when administered to a living organism, produces a biological effect. Consumption of drugs can be via inhalation, injection, smoking, ingestion, ...
. Parts of the International Boundary cross through mountainous terrain or heavily forested areas, but significant portions also cross remote prairie farmland and the Great Lakes and Saint Lawrence River, in addition to the maritime components of the boundary at the
Atlantic The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of the world's five oceanic divisions, with an area of about . It covers approximately 17% of Earth's surface and about 24% of its water surface area. During the Age of Discovery, it was known for se ...
,
Pacific The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of Earth's five oceanic divisions. It extends from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Southern Ocean, or, depending on the definition, to Antarctica in the south, and is bounded by the cont ...
, and
Arctic Ocean The Arctic Ocean is the smallest and shallowest of the world's five oceanic divisions. It spans an area of approximately and is the coldest of the world's oceans. The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) recognizes it as an ocean, ...
s. The border runs through the middle of the Mohawk Nation at Akwesasne, and even divides some buildings in communities in New England and Quebec. The US Customs and Border Protection identifies the chief issues along the border as domestic and international terrorism, smuggling of illegal drugs and products such as
tobacco Tobacco is the common name of several plants in the genus '' Nicotiana'' of the family Solanaceae, and the general term for any product prepared from the cured leaves of these plants. More than 70 species of tobacco are known, but the ...
to evade customs duties, and illegal immigration. A June 2019 U.S.
Government Accountability Office The United States Government Accountability Office (GAO) is an independent, nonpartisan government agency within the legislative branch that provides auditing, evaluative, and investigative services for the United States Congress. It is the s ...
report identified specific staffing and resource shortfalls faced by the CBP on the Northern border that adversely affect enforcement actions; the U.S. Border Patrol and CBP Air and Marine Operations identified an insufficient number of agents along the northern border for land, air, and maritime missions. There are eight U.S. Border Patrol sectors, on the Canada–U.S. border, each covering a designated "area of responsibility"; the sectors, from west to east, are based in
Blaine, Washington Blaine is a city in Whatcom County, Washington, Whatcom County, Washington (state), Washington, United States. The city's northern boundary is the Canada–United States border, Canada–U.S. border; the Peace Arch international monument straddl ...
,
Spokane, Washington Spokane ( ) is the most populous city in eastern Washington and the county seat of Spokane County, Washington, United States. It lies along the Spokane River, adjacent to the Selkirk Mountains, and west of the Rocky Mountain foothills, south o ...
,
Havre, Montana Havre ( ) is the county seat of and the largest city in Hill County, Montana, United States. Havre is nicknamed the crown jewel of the Hi-Line (Montana), Hi-Line. It is said to be named after the city of Le Havre in France. As of the 2020 Unite ...
,
Grand Forks, North Dakota Grand Forks is a city in and the county seat of Grand Forks County, North Dakota, United States. The city's population was 59,166 as of the 2020 United States census, 2020 census, making it the List of cities in North Dakota, third-most populous ...
,
Detroit, Michigan Detroit ( , ) is the List of municipalities in Michigan, most populous city in the U.S. state of Michigan. It is situated on the bank of the Detroit River across from Windsor, Ontario. It had a population of 639,111 at the 2020 United State ...
,
Buffalo, New York Buffalo is a Administrative divisions of New York (state), city in the U.S. state of New York (state), New York and county seat of Erie County, New York, Erie County. It lies in Western New York at the eastern end of Lake Erie, at the head of ...
, Swanton, Vermont, and
Houlton, Maine Houlton is a town in and the county seat of Aroostook County, Maine, United States, on the Canada–United States border. As of the 2020 census, the town's population was 6,055. It is perhaps best known for being at the northern terminus of Int ...
. Following the September 11 attacks in the United States, security along the border was dramatically tightened by the two countries in both populated and rural areas. Both nations are also actively involved in detailed and extensive tactical and strategic intelligence sharing. In December 2010, Canada and the United States were negotiating an agreement titled "Beyond the Border: A Shared Vision for Perimeter Security and Competitiveness" which would give the U.S. more influence over Canada's border security and immigration controls, and more information would be shared by Canada with the U.S.


Security measures

Residents of both nations who own property adjacent to the border are forbidden to build within the boundary vista without permission from the International Boundary Commission. They are required to report such construction to their respective governments. All persons crossing the border are required to report to the customs agency of the country they have entered. Where necessary, fences or vehicle blockades are used. In remote areas, where staffed border crossings are not available, there are hidden
sensor A sensor is often defined as a device that receives and responds to a signal or stimulus. The stimulus is the quantity, property, or condition that is sensed and converted into electrical signal. In the broadest definition, a sensor is a devi ...
s on roads, trails, railways, and wooded areas, which are located near crossing points. There is no border zone; the U.S. Customs and Border Protection routinely sets up checkpoints as far as into U.S. territory. In August 2020, the United States constructed of short cable fencing along the border between
Abbotsford, British Columbia Abbotsford is a city in British Columbia next to the Canada–United States border, Greater Vancouver, and the Fraser River. With a census population of 153,569 people (2021), it is the most populous municipality in the province outside metropol ...
, and
Whatcom County, Washington Whatcom County (, ) is a County (United States), county located in the northwestern corner of the U.S. state of Washington (state), Washington, bordered by the Lower Mainland (the Metro Vancouver and Fraser Valley Regional Districts) of the ...
.


Identification

Before 2007, American and Canadian citizens were only required to produce a birth certificate and driver's license/government-issued identification card when crossing the Canada–United States border. However, in late 2006, the
U.S. Department of Homeland Security The United States Department of Homeland Security (DHS) is the U.S. federal executive department responsible for public security, roughly comparable to the interior, home, or public security ministries in other countries. Its missions involv ...
(DHS) announced the final rule of the Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative (WHTI), which pertained to new identification requirements for travelers entering the United States. This rule, which marked the first phase of the initiative, was implemented on January 23, 2007, specifying six forms of identification acceptable for crossing the U.S. border (depending on mode): * a valid
passport A passport is an official travel document issued by a government that certifies a person's identity and nationality for international travel. A passport allows its bearer to enter and temporarily reside in a foreign country, access local aid ...
—required to enter by air; * a United States passport card; * an enhanced driver's license—issued by the U.S. States of
Michigan Michigan ( ) is a peninsular U.S. state, state in the Great Lakes region, Great Lakes region of the Upper Midwest, Upper Midwestern United States. It shares water and land boundaries with Minnesota to the northwest, Wisconsin to the west, ...
,
Minnesota Minnesota ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Upper Midwestern region of the United States. It is bordered by the Canadian provinces of Manitoba and Ontario to the north and east and by the U.S. states of Wisconsin to the east, Iowa to the so ...
, New York,
Vermont Vermont () is a U.S. state, state in the New England region of the Northeastern United States. It borders Massachusetts to the south, New Hampshire to the east, New York (state), New York to the west, and the Provinces and territories of Ca ...
, and Washington, as well as the Canadian Provinces of
British Columbia British Columbia is the westernmost Provinces and territories of Canada, province of Canada. Situated in the Pacific Northwest between the Pacific Ocean and the Rocky Mountains, the province has a diverse geography, with rugged landscapes that ...
,
Manitoba Manitoba is a Provinces and territories of Canada, province of Canada at the Centre of Canada, longitudinal centre of the country. It is Canada's Population of Canada by province and territory, fifth-most populous province, with a population ...
,
Ontario Ontario is the southernmost Provinces and territories of Canada, province of Canada. Located in Central Canada, Ontario is the Population of Canada by province and territory, country's most populous province. As of the 2021 Canadian census, it ...
, and
Quebec Quebec is Canada's List of Canadian provinces and territories by area, largest province by area. Located in Central Canada, the province shares borders with the provinces of Ontario to the west, Newfoundland and Labrador to the northeast, ...
; * a trusted traveler program card (i.e. NEXUS, FAST, or SENTRI); * a valid
Merchant Mariner Credential The Merchant Mariner Credential (MMC) is a credential issued by the United States Coast Guard in accordance with guidelines of the STCW, International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers (STCW) to Unit ...
—to be used when traveling in conjunction with official maritime business; and * a valid U.S. military identification card—to be used when traveling on official orders. The requirement of a passport or an enhanced form of identification to enter the United States by air went into effect in January 2007; and went into effect for those entering the U.S. by land and sea in January 2008. Although the new requirements for land and sea entry went into legal effect in January 2008, its enforcement did not begin until June 2009. Since June 2009, every traveler arriving via a land or sea port-of-entry (including
ferries A ferry is a boat or ship that transports passengers, and occasionally vehicles and cargo, across a body of water. A small passenger ferry with multiple stops, like those in Venice, Italy, is sometimes referred to as a water taxi or water bus. ...
) has been required to present one of the above forms of identification to enter the United States. Conversely, to cross into Canada, a traveler must also carry identification, as well as a valid visa (if necessary) when crossing the border. Forms of identification include a valid passport, a Canadian Emergency Travel Document, an enhanced driver's license issued by a Canadian province or territory, or an enhanced identification/photo card issued by a Canadian province or territory. Several other documents may be used by Canadians to identify their citizenship at the border, although such documents must be supported with additional photo identification. American and Canadian citizens who are members of a trusted traveler program such as FAST or NEXUS, may present their FAST or NEXUS card as an alternate form of identification when crossing the international boundary by land or sea, or when arriving by air from only Canada or the United States. Although permanent residents of Canada and the United States are eligible for FAST or NEXUS, they are required to travel with a passport and proof of permanent residency upon arrival at the Canadian border. American permanent residents who are NEXUS members also require Electronic Travel Authorization when crossing the Canadian border.


Security issues


Smuggling

Smuggling of
alcoholic beverages Drinks containing alcohol are typically divided into three classes—beers, wines, and spirits—with alcohol content typically between 3% and 50%. Drinks with less than 0.5% are sometimes considered non-alcoholic. Many societies have a di ...
( "rum running") was widespread during the 1920s, when
Prohibition Prohibition is the act or practice of forbidding something by law; more particularly the term refers to the banning of the manufacture, storage (whether in barrels or in bottles), transportation, sale, possession, and consumption of alcoholic b ...
was in effect nationally in the
United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...
and parts of
Canada Canada is a country in North America. Its Provinces and territories of Canada, ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, making it the world's List of coun ...
. In more recent years, Canadian officials have brought attention to
drug A drug is any chemical substance other than a nutrient or an essential dietary ingredient, which, when administered to a living organism, produces a biological effect. Consumption of drugs can be via insufflation (medicine), inhalation, drug i ...
,
cigarette A cigarette is a narrow cylinder containing a combustible material, typically tobacco, that is rolled into Rolling paper, thin paper for smoking. The cigarette is ignited at one end, causing it to smolder; the resulting smoke is orally inhale ...
, and
firearm A firearm is any type of gun that uses an explosive charge and is designed to be readily carried and operated by an individual. The term is legally defined further in different countries (see legal definitions). The first firearms originate ...
smuggling from the United States, while U.S. officials have made complaints of drug smuggling via Canada. In July 2005, law enforcement personnel arrested three men who had built a tunnel under the border between British Columbia and Washington, intended for the use of smuggling Cannabis (drug), marijuana, the first such tunnel known on this border. From 2007 to 2010, 147 people were arrested for smuggling marijuana on the property of a Bed and breakfast, bed-and-breakfast in Blaine, Washington, but agents estimate that they caught only about 5% of smugglers. Because of its location, Cornwall, Ontario, experiences ongoing smuggling—mostly of tobacco and firearms from the United States. The neighboring Mohawk people, Mohawk territory of Akwesasne straddles the Ontario–Quebec–New York borders, where its First Nations in Canada, First Nations sovereignty prevents Ontario Provincial Police, Sûreté du Québec, Royal Canadian Mounted Police, Canada Border Services Agency, Canadian Coast Guard, United States Border Patrol, United States Coast Guard, and New York State Police from exercising jurisdiction over exchanges taking place within the territory.


2009 border occupation

In May 2009, the Mohawk people of Akwesasne occupied the area around the
Canada Border Services Agency The Canada Border Services Agency (CBSA; , ''ASFC'') is a federal law enforcement agency that is responsible for border guard, border control (i.e. protection and surveillance), immigration enforcement, and Customs, customs services in Canada. ...
port of entry building to protest the Canadian government's decision to arm its border agents while operating on Mohawk territory. The north span of the Seaway International Bridge and the CBSA inspection facilities were closed. During this occupation, the Canadian flag was replaced with the flag of the Mohawk people. Although U.S. Customs remained open to southbound traffic, northbound traffic was blocked on the U.S. side by both American and Canadian officials. The Canadian border at this crossing remained closed for six weeks. On July 13, 2009, the CBSA opened a temporary inspection station at the north end of the north span of the bridge in the city of Cornwall, allowing traffic to once again flow in both directions. The Mohawk people of Akwesasne have staged ongoing protests at this border. In 2014, they objected to a process that made their crossing more tedious, believing it violated their treaty rights of free passage. When traveling from the U.S. to Cornwall Island (Ontario), Cornwall Island, they must first cross a second bridge into Canada, for inspection at the new Canadian border station. Discussions between intergovernmental agencies were being pursued on the feasibility of relocating the Canadian border inspection facilities on the U.S. side of the border.


2017 border crossing crisis

In August 2017, the border between Quebec and New York saw an influx of up to 500 irregular crossings each day, by individuals seeking asylum in Canada. In response Canada increased border security and immigration staffing in the area, reiterating that crossing the border irregularly did not affect a person's asylum status. From the beginning of January 2017 up until the end of March 2018, the RCMP intercepted 25,645 people crossing the border into Canada from an unauthorized point of entry. Public Safety Canada estimates another 2,500 came across in April 2018 for a total of just over 28,000.


Border lengths and regions

The length of the terrestrial boundary is , of which is between Canada and the Contiguous United States, contiguous 48 US states, and is between Canada and
Alaska Alaska ( ) is a non-contiguous U.S. state on the northwest extremity of North America. Part of the Western United States region, it is one of the two non-contiguous U.S. states, alongside Hawaii. Alaska is also considered to be the north ...
. Eight out of thirteen provinces and territories of Canada and thirteen out of fifty U.S. states share this international boundary.


Yukon

The Canadian territory of Yukon shares its entire western border with the U.S. state of Alaska, beginning at the Beaufort Sea at and proceeding southwards along the 141st meridian west. At 60°18′N, the border proceeds away from the 141st meridian west in a southeastward direction, following the Saint Elias Mountains. South of the 60th parallel north, the border continues into British Columbia.


British Columbia

British Columbia British Columbia is the westernmost Provinces and territories of Canada, province of Canada. Situated in the Pacific Northwest between the Pacific Ocean and the Rocky Mountains, the province has a diverse geography, with rugged landscapes that ...
has two international borders with the United States: with the state of Alaska along BC's northwest, and with the
contiguous United States The contiguous United States, also known as the U.S. mainland, officially referred to as the conterminous United States, consists of the 48 adjoining U.S. states and the District of Columbia of the United States in central North America. The te ...
along the southern edge of the province, including (west to east) Washington, Idaho, and Montana. BC's Alaskan border, continuing from Yukon's, proceeds through the Saint Elias Mountains, followed by Mount Fairweather at (near the Fairweather Glacier), where the border heads northwestward towards the Coast Mountains. At (near Skagway, Alaska), the border begins a general southeastward direction along the Coast Mountains. The border eventually reaches the Portland Canal and follows it outward to the Dixon Entrance, which takes the border down and out into the Pacific Ocean, terminating it upon reaching international waters. BC's border along the contiguous U.S. begins southwest of Vancouver Island and northwest of the Olympic Peninsula, at the terminus of international waters in the Pacific Ocean and the northwest corner of the American state of Washington. It follows the Strait of Juan de Fuca eastward, turning northeastward to enter Haro Strait. The border follows the strait in a northward direction, but turns sharply eastward through Boundary Pass, separating the Canadian Gulf Islands from the American San Juan Islands. Upon reaching the Strait of Georgia, the border turns due north and then towards the northwest, bisecting the strait until the 49th parallel north. After making a sharp turn eastbound, the border follows this parallel across the Tsawwassen, British Columbia, Tsawwassen Peninsula, separating Point Roberts, Washington, from Delta, British Columbia, and continues into Alberta.


Prairies

The entire Canada–U.S. border in the provinces of both Alberta and Saskatchewan lies along the 49th parallel north. Both provinces share borders with the state of Montana, while, farther east, Saskatchewan also shares a border with North Dakota. On the American side, the states of Montana, North Dakota, and Minnesota all lie on the straight part of the border. Along with the U.S. states of North Dakota and Minnesota (west to east), nearly the entire Canada–U.S. border in
Manitoba Manitoba is a Provinces and territories of Canada, province of Canada at the Centre of Canada, longitudinal centre of the country. It is Canada's Population of Canada by province and territory, fifth-most populous province, with a population ...
lies along the 49th parallel north. At the province's eastern end, however, the border briefly enters the Lake of the Woods, turning north at where it continues into the land along the western end of Minnesota's Northwest Angle, the only part of the United States, other than Alaska, that is north of the 49th parallel. The border reaches Ontario at . Procedures to cross through Manitoba to reach and return from this territory, which involve telephoning U.S. Customs, have been arranged.


Ontario

The province of Ontario shares its border (west to east) with the U.S. states of Minnesota,
Michigan Michigan ( ) is a peninsular U.S. state, state in the Great Lakes region, Great Lakes region of the Upper Midwest, Upper Midwestern United States. It shares water and land boundaries with Minnesota to the northwest, Wisconsin to the west, ...
, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York. The largest provincial international border, most of the border is a water boundary. It begins at the north-westernmost point of Minnesota's Northwest Angle.(49°23′N 95°09′W). From here, it proceeds eastward through the Angle Inlet into the Lake of the Woods, turning southward at (near Dawson Township, Manitoulin District, Ontario, Dawson Township, Ontario) where it continues into the Rainy River (Minnesota–Ontario), Rainy River. The border follows the River to Rainy Lake, then subsequently through various smaller lakes, including Namakan Lake, Lac La Croix First Nation, Lac la Croix, and Sea Gull Lake. The border then crosses the Height of Land Portage over the divide between the Hudson Bay drainage basin, and that of the Great Lakes. The boundary then follows the Pigeon River (Minnesota-Ontario), Pigeon River, which leads it out into Lake Superior. The border continues through Lake Superior and Whitefish Bay, into the St. Marys River (Michigan–Ontario), St. Mary's River then the North Channel (Ontario), North Channel. At (between Drummond Township, Michigan, to the west and Cockburn Island (Ontario) to the east), the border turns southward into the False Detour Channel, from which it reaches Lake Huron. Through the Lake, the border heads southward until reaching the St. Clair River, leading it to Lake St. Clair. The border proceeds through Lake St. Clair, reaching the Detroit River, which leads it to Lake Erie, where it begins turning northeast. From Lake Erie, the border is led into the Niagara River, which takes it into Lake Ontario. From here, the boundary heads northwestward until it reaches , where it makes a sharp turn towards the northeast. The border then reaches the St. Lawrence River, proceeding through it until finally, at (between Massena, New York, and Cornwall, Ontario), the border splits from the river and continues into Quebec.


Quebec

The province of Quebec borders (west to east) the U.S. states of New York, Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine, beginning where the Ontario-New York border ends in the St. Lawrence River at the 45th parallel north. The Quebec-New York border heads inland towards the east, remaining on or near the parallel, becoming the border of Vermont. At (the tripoint of Vermont, New Hampshire, and Quebec), the border begins to follow various natural features of the Appalachian Mountains as it turns into the border of Maine. It continues to do so until (near Saint-Camille-de-Lellis, Quebec, on the Canadian side, and unorganized territory on the American side), where it heads north, then northeastward at (near Lac-Frontière, Quebec). Finally, at (near Pohénégamook, Quebec), the border heads toward Beau Lake, going through it and continuing into New Brunswick.


New Brunswick

The entire border of New Brunswick is shared with the U.S. state of Maine, beginning at the southern tip of Beau Lake at (between Rivière-Bleue, Quebec, and Saint-François Parish, New Brunswick), subsequently proceeding to the Saint John River (New Brunswick), Saint John River. The border moves through the River until (between Hamlin, Maine, and Grand Falls, New Brunswick), where it splits from the river. It heads southward to (near Amity, Maine), from whence it follows the Monument Brook further south into the Chiputneticook Lakes, which subsequently leads the border to the St. Croix River (Maine – New Brunswick), St. Croix River. The border proceeds through the St. Croix to Passamaquoddy Bay, which then leads it to Grand Manan Island into the middle of the Bay of Fundy. Here, the border turns towards the south and terminates upon reaching international waters.


Crossings and border straddling


Airports

United States Customs and Border Protection maintains pre-clearance facilities at nine Canadian airports with nonstop air service to the United States: Calgary International Airport, Calgary; Edmonton International Airport, Edmonton; Halifax Stanfield International Airport, Halifax Stanfield; Montréal–Trudeau International Airport, Montreal–Trudeau; Ottawa Macdonald–Cartier International Airport, Ottawa Macdonald–Cartier; Billy Bishop Toronto City Airport, Toronto-Bishop, Toronto Pearson International Airport, Toronto–Pearson, Vancouver International Airport, Vancouver; and Winnipeg James Armstrong Richardson International Airport, Winnipeg James Armstrong Richardson. These procedures expedite travel by allowing flights originating in Canada to land at a U.S. airport without being processed as an international arrival. Canada does not maintain equivalent personnel at U.S. airports due to the limited number of Canada-bound flights from U.S. locations. Both New York LaGuardia (LGA) and Washington National (DCA) airports lack immigration and customs inspection facilities. However, U.S. pre-clearance facilities in Toronto and Montreal permit nonstop service to New York and Washington.


Cross-border airports

The Canada–U.S. border has six airports and eleven seaplane bases whose runways straddle the borderline. Such airports were built before the Military history of the United States during World War II, U.S. entry into World War II as a way to legally transfer U.S.-built aircraft, such as the Lockheed Hudson, to Canada under the provisions of the Lend-Lease, ''Lend-Lease Act''. In the interest of maintaining neutrality, U.S. military pilots were forbidden to deliver combat aircraft to Canada. As a result, the aircraft were flown to the border, where they landed, and then were towed on their wheels over the border by tractors or horses overnight. The next day, the planes were crewed by Royal Canadian Air Force, RCAF pilots and flown to other locations, typically air bases in Eastern Canada and Dominion of Newfoundland, Newfoundland.The planes were flown to the United Kingdom and deployed in the Battle of Britain. Piney Pinecreek Border Airport is located in Piney, Manitoba, and Pinecreek, Minnesota. The northwest–southeast-oriented runway straddles the border, and there are two ramps: one in the U.S. and one in Canada. The airport is owned by the Minnesota Department of Transportation.Simpson, Victoria. 2020.
4 Airports Shared By The U.S. And Canada
" ''WorldAtlas''. Retrieved April 29, 2020.
International Peace Garden Airport is located in Boissevain, Manitoba, and Dunseith, North Dakota, adjacent to the International Peace Garden. The runway is entirely within North Dakota, but a ramp extends across the border to allow aircraft to access Canadian customs. While not jointly owned, it is operated as an international facility for customs clearance as part of the Peace Garden. Coronach/Scobey Border Station Airport (or East Poplar Airport) is located in Coronach, Saskatchewan, and Scobey, Montana. The airport is jointly owned by the Canadian and U.S. governments, with its east-west runway sited exactly on the borderline. Coutts/Ross International Airport is located in Alberta and Montana. Like Coronach/Scobey, the east-west runway is sited exactly on the border. The airport is owned entirely by the Montana Department of Transportation (DOT) Aeronautics Division. Whetstone International Airport, Del Bonita/Whetstone International Airport, located in Del Bonita, Alberta, and Del Bonita, Montana, has an east-west runway sited exactly on the border, similar to Coutts/Ross. The airport is officially owned by the state of Montana and run by the state's DOT Aeronautics Division, thus it has been assigned a U.S. IATA airport code, identifier only. The facility is set up for both the general public (15 passengers maximum per plane) as well as the United States Armed Forces, American military. Avey Field State Airport is located in Washington and British Columbia. The privately owned airfield is mostly in the U.S., but several hundred feet of the north-south runway extend into Canada. As such, both Canadian and U.S. customs are available. It is assigned a U.S. identifier but does not have a Canadian one. Several seaplane bases have water runways that cross the border, though the extent to which they do may be difficult to ascertain. The land-based facilities for the bases are all contained within one country or the other, however, leading to multiple situations where twin seaplane bases may share the same body of water. The following seaplane facilities exist on the border: * Rouses Point Seaplane Base, Rouses Point SPB (New York / Quebec) * Van Buren Seaplane Base, Van Buren SPB (Maine / New Brunswick) * Sault Ste Marie International Seaplane Base, Sault Ste Marie SPB and Sault Ste. Marie Water Aerodrome (Michigan / Ontario) * Sand Point Lake Water Aerodrome (Minnesota / Ontario) * International Falls Seaplane Base, International Falls SPB and Fort Frances Water Aerodrome (Minnesota / Ontario) * Baudette International Airport and Rainy River Water Aerodrome (Minnesota / Ontario) * Hyder Seaplane Base and Stewart Water Aerodrome (Alaska / British Columbia)


Land border crossings

Currently, there are 119 legal land border crossings between the United States and Canada, 26 of which take place at a bridge or tunnel. Only 2 of the 119 crossings are one-way: the Churubusco–Franklin Centre Border Crossing, where travelers may enter only the United States; and the Four Falls Border Crossing, where travelers may enter only Canada. Six roads have List of Canada–United States border crossings#Unstaffed road crossings, unstaffed road crossings, and do not have border inspection services in one or both directions, where travelers are legally allowed to cross the border. Those who cross are required to report to customs, which are stationed farther within.


Trail crossings

The Fourth Connecticut Lake Trail (New Hampshire/Quebec) crosses several times while following the border vista before heading back to the United States. The Pacific Crest Trail crosses into E. C. Manning Provincial Park in the remote North Cascades mountains. Hikers can only legally cross into Canada from the U.S. and not vice versa, requiring an advance permit.


= Rail crossings

= There are 39 List of Canada–United States border crossings#Rail crossings, railroads that cross the U.S.–Canada border, nine of which are no longer in use. Eleven of these railroads cross the border at a bridge or tunnel. Only three international rail lines currently carry passengers between the U.S. and Canada. At Vancouver's Pacific Central Station, passengers are required to pass through U.S. partial pre-clearance and pass their baggage through an X-ray machine before being allowed to board the Seattle-bound Amtrak Cascades, Amtrak ''Cascades'' train, which makes no further stops before crossing the border at Blaine, Washington, where the train stops for another CBP inspection. Pre-clearance facilities are not available for the popular Adirondack (train), ''Adirondack'' (New York City to Montreal) or Maple Leaf (train), ''Maple Leaf'' (New York City to Toronto) trains, since these lines have stops between Montreal or Toronto and the border. Instead, passengers must clear customs at a stop located at the actual border.


Seaports

There are 13 international List of Canada–United States border crossings#Ferry crossings, ferry crossings operating between the U.S. and Canada. Two of them carry passengers only and one carries only rail cars. Four of the ferries operate only on a seasonal basis. Similar to the pre-clearance facilities at Canadian airports, arrangements exist at major Canadian Port, seaports that handle sealed direct import shipments into the U.S. Along the East Coast, ferry services operate between the province of New Brunswick and the state of Maine, while on the West coast, they operate between British Columbia and the states of Washington and Alaska. There are also several ferry services in the Great Lakes operating between the province of Ontario and the states of Michigan, New York, and Ohio. The ferry between Maine and Nova Scotia ended its operations in 2009, resuming again in 2014. Seasonal vessel inspection stations are operated at tourist destinations such as Heart Island, New York, and Rockport, Ontario. At landings unmanned by border personnel, telephoning the appropriate border agency may be sufficient to meet legal requirements.


Cross-border buildings

A line house is a building located so that an international boundary passes through it. Several such buildings exist along the U.S.–Canada border: * The Haskell Free Library and Opera House straddles the border in Derby Line, Vermont, and Stanstead, Quebec. * Private homes divided by the boundary line between Estcourt Station, Maine, and Pohénégamook, Quebec. * Private homes divided between Stanstead, Quebec#Beebe Plain, Beebe Plain, Quebec, and Beebe Plain, Vermont; * A seasonal home divided at the intersection of Matthias Lane in Alburgh (town), Vermont, Alburgh, Vermont, and Chemin au Bord de l'Eau in Noyan, Quebec; * A house divided between Richford, Vermont, and Abercorn, Quebec. * The Halfway House (also known as Taillon's International Hotel) was a tavern, built in 1820 before the border was surveyed, that straddles the border between Dundee, Quebec, and Fort Covington, New York. There is a line on the terrazzo floor of the old beer parlour delineating the border. The owner now runs a freight forwarding company called, "Halfway House Freight Forwarding". The Canada Customs house is just on the other side of the parking lot. The Maine–New Brunswick border divides the Aroostook Valley Country Club.


Boundary divisions


Practical exclaves

To be a true international Enclave and exclave, exclave, ''all'' potential paths of travel from the exclave to the home country must cross over only the territory of a different country or countries. Like exclaves, practical exclaves are not contiguous with the ''land'' of the home country and have ''land'' access only through another country or countries. Unlike exclaves, they are not ''entirely'' surrounded by foreign territory. Hence, they are exclaves ''for practical purposes'', without meeting the strict definition. The term ''pene-exclave,'' also known as a "functional" or "practical" exclave, was defined by G. W. S. Robinson (1959) as "parts of the territory of one country that can be approached conveniently — in particular by wheeled traffic — only through the territory of another country." Thus, a pene-exclave has land borders with other territories but is not surrounded by the other's land or territorial waters. Catudal (1974) and Vinokurov (2007) provide examples to further elaborate, including Point Roberts, Washington: "Although physical connections by water with Point Roberts are entirely within the sovereignty of the United States, land access is only possible through Canada." Practical exclaves can exhibit continuity of state territory across territorial waters but a discontinuity on land, such as in the case of Point Roberts.


Practical exclaves of Canada

The Quebec western portion of the Akwesasne reserve is a practical exclave of Canada because of the St. Lawrence River to the north, the St. Regis River to the east, New York State, U.S. to the south. To travel by land to elsewhere in Canada, one must drive through New York State. Campobello Island is another practical exclave located at the entrance to Passamaquoddy Bay, adjacent to the entrance to Cobscook Bay, and within the Bay of Fundy. The island is part of Charlotte County, New Brunswick, but is physically connected by the Franklin Delano Roosevelt Bridge with Lubec, Maine, the easternmost tip of the continental United States. Premier, British Columbia, is an abandoned mining site accessible only through Hyder, Alaska.


Practical exclaves of the United States

Alaska is a non-contiguous U.S. state bounded by the Bering Sea; the Arctic and Pacific oceans; and Canada's British Columbia and Yukon Territory. Additionally, because of the terrain, several municipalities in southeast Alaska (the "Panhandle") are inaccessible by road, except via Canada. Specifically, the town of Hyder, Alaska, is accessible only through Stewart, British Columbia, or by floatplane. Moreover, Haines, Alaska, Haines and Skagway are accessible by road only through Canada, although there are car ferries that connect them to other Alaskan places. Point Roberts, Washington, is bounded by British Columbia, the Strait of Georgia, and Boundary Bay. In Minnesota, Elm Point, Minnesota, Elm Point, two small pieces of land to its west (Buffalo Bay Point), and the Northwest Angle are bounded by the province of
Manitoba Manitoba is a Provinces and territories of Canada, province of Canada at the Centre of Canada, longitudinal centre of the country. It is Canada's Population of Canada by province and territory, fifth-most populous province, with a population ...
and
Lake of the Woods Lake of the Woods (; ) is a lake occupying parts of the Canadian provinces of Ontario and Manitoba and the U.S. state of Minnesota. Lake of the Woods is over long and wide, containing more than 14,552 islands and of shoreline. It is fed by t ...
. In Vermont, the Alburgh (town), Vermont, Alburgh Tongue, as well as Province Point, which is the small end of a peninsula east of Alburgh, are bounded by Quebec and Lake Champlain.


Split features

Between Quebec and Vermont, Province Island is a piece of land that primarily lies in Canada, though a small portion of the island is situated in the U.S. state, lying south of the 45th parallel with a border vista marking the international boundary. Canusa Street in Beebe Plain, Vermont, is the only place where the border lies in the middle of a street. Between North Dakota and Manitoba, the international border splits a peninsula within a lake on the border of Rolette County, North Dakota, and the Wakopa Wildlife Management Area, MB. Likewise, Lake Metigoshe, lying in the Roland Township, Bottineau County, North Dakota, Township of Roland, borders the municipality of Municipality of Deloraine-Winchester, Winchester, Manitoba. The border splits a shoreline, putting Canadian cabins on one side and the beach and boat docks for those cabins on the U.S. side, while land access is only through Canada.


Remaining boundary disputes

* Machias Seal Island and North Rock (
Maine Maine ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the New England region of the United States, and the northeasternmost state in the Contiguous United States. It borders New Hampshire to the west, the Gulf of Maine to the southeast, and the Provinces and ...
/
New Brunswick New Brunswick is a Provinces and Territories of Canada, province of Canada, bordering Quebec to the north, Nova Scotia to the east, the Gulf of Saint Lawrence to the northeast, the Bay of Fundy to the southeast, and the U.S. state of Maine to ...
) * Dixon Entrance (
Alaska Alaska ( ) is a non-contiguous U.S. state on the northwest extremity of North America. Part of the Western United States region, it is one of the two non-contiguous U.S. states, alongside Hawaii. Alaska is also considered to be the north ...
/
British Columbia British Columbia is the westernmost Provinces and territories of Canada, province of Canada. Situated in the Pacific Northwest between the Pacific Ocean and the Rocky Mountains, the province has a diverse geography, with rugged landscapes that ...
) * Beaufort Sea (Alaska / Yukon) * Strait of Juan de Fuca ( Washington / British Columbia)


See also

*U.S. Customs and Border Protection, United States Customs and Border Protection **United States Border Patrol interior checkpoints * Canada–United States relations * Illegal immigration to Canada * Illegal immigration to the United States * Indian barrier state, British plans to set up a new country in the Old Northwest * John Lewis Tiarks, a British surveyor of the border * Joseph Smith Harris' account of the Northwest Boundary Survey * Mexico–United States border * Mobile Passport, a means of pre-submitting passport information to customs for this border


Footnotes


References


Citations


Further reading

* Ackleson, Jason. 2009. "From 'thin' to 'thick' (and back again?): the politics and policies of the contemporary US–Canada border." ''American Review of Canadian Studies'' 9.4 (2009): 336-351. * Anderson, Christopher G. 2012.
Canadian Liberalism and the Politics of Border Control, 1867–1967
'. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press. Studies pivotal episodes in Canadian immigration policy that shed light on more restrictive approaches today. * Andreas, Peter. 2005. "The Mexicanization of the US-Canada border: Asymmetric interdependence in a changing security context." ''International Journal'' 60.2 (2005): 449-462. * Côté-Boucher, Karine, Luna Vives, and Louis-Philippe Jannard. 2023. "Chronicle of a 'Crisis' Foretold: Asylum seekers and the case of Roxham Road on the Canada-US border." ''Environment and Planning C: Politics and Space'' 41.2 (2023): 408-426
online
*Courtney Hunt, Hunt, Courtney. 2008. ''Frozen River''. edited by Kate Williams. US: Sony Pictures Classics. A feature film about smuggling across the border * Botsford Fraser, Marian. 1989 ''Walking the Line: Travels Along the Canadian/American Border'', [Douglas & McIntyre/Sierra Club Books] 1989 * Leuprecht, Christian; Hataley, Todd S., eds. ''Security. Cooperation. Governance.: The Canada-United States Open Border Paradox'' (University of Michigan Press, 2023
online review of this book
* Lybecker, Donna L., et al. 2018. "The social construction of a border: The US–Canada border." ''Journal of Borderlands Studies'' 33.4 (2018): 529-547. * McCallum, John. 1995. "National borders matter Canada-US regional trade patterns." ''American Economic Review'' 85.3 (1995): 615-623. * Moens, Alexander, and Nachum Gabler. 2012. "Measuring the costs of the Canada-US border." (Fraser Institute, ''Studies in Canada-US Relations'' (2012)
online
* Nicol, Heather N. 2012. "The wall, the fence, and the gate: Reflexive metaphors along the Canada–US border." ''Journal of Borderlands Studies'' 27.2 (2012): 139-165. * Nicol, Heather. 2005. "Resiliency or Change? The Contemporary Canada—US Border." ''Geopolitics'' 10.4 (2005): 767-790. * Paulus, Jeremy, and Ali Asgary. 2010.
Enhancing Border Security: Local Values and Preferences at the Blue Water Bridge (Point Edward, Canada)
" ''Journal of Homeland Security and Emergency'' ''Management'' 7(1): article 77. * Salter, Mark B., and Geneviève Piché. 2011. "The securitization of the US–Canada border in American political discourse." ''Canadian Journal of Political Science/Revue canadienne de science politique'' 44.4 (2011): 929-951
online
* Von Hlatky, Stéfanie, and Jessica N. Trisko. 2012. "Sharing the Burden of the Border: Layered Security Co-operation and the Canada–US Frontier." ''Canadian Journal of Political Science/Revue canadienne de science politique'' 45.1 (2012): 63-88
online


External links

*University of Kent. 2015.
Culture and the Canada–US Border
'' funded by Leverhulme Trust. An international research network dedicated to studying cultural representation, production, and exchange on and around the Canada–US border.


External links


International Boundary Commission
{{DEFAULTSORT:Canada-United States Border Canada–United States border, Borders of Canada Borders of the United States Canada–United States relations International borders Geography of Washington (state)