Burmese–Siamese War (1547–1549)
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The Burmese–Siamese War (1547–1549) (; ), also known as the Shwehti war () was the first war fought between the
Toungoo dynasty ''taungnguumainn saat'' , conventional_long_name = Toungoo dynasty , common_name = Taungoo dynasty , status = Empire/Monarchy, Kingdom , event_start = Independence from Kingdom of Ava, Ava Kingdom , yea ...
of
Burma Myanmar, officially the Republic of the Union of Myanmar; and also referred to as Burma (the official English name until 1989), is a country in northwest Southeast Asia. It is the largest country by area in Mainland Southeast Asia and ha ...
and the
Ayutthaya Kingdom The Ayutthaya Kingdom or the Empire of Ayutthaya was a Thai people, Thai kingdom that existed in Southeast Asia from 1351 to 1767, centered around the city of Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya (city), Ayutthaya, in Siam, or present-day Thailand. Europe ...
of
Siam Thailand, officially the Kingdom of Thailand and historically known as Siam (the official name until 1939), is a country in Southeast Asia on the Mainland Southeast Asia, Indochinese Peninsula. With a population of almost 66 million, it spa ...
, and the first of the Burmese–Siamese wars that would continue until the middle of the 19th century. The war is notable for the introduction of
early modern warfare Early modern warfare is the era of warfare during early modern period following medieval warfare. It is associated with the start of the widespread use of gunpowder and the development of suitable weapons to use the explosive, including art ...
to the region. It is also notable in
Thai history Thai or THAI may refer to: * Of or from Thailand, a country in Southeast Asia. ** Thai people, Siamese people, Central/Southern Thai people or Thai noi people, an ethnic group from Central and Southern Thailand. ** , Thai minority in southern Myan ...
for the death in battle of Siamese Queen Suriyothai on her
war elephant A war elephant is an elephant that is Animal training, trained and guided by humans for combat purposes. Historically, the war elephant's main use was to charge (warfare), charge the enemy, break their ranks, and instill terror and fear. Elep ...
; the conflict is often referred to in
Thailand Thailand, officially the Kingdom of Thailand and historically known as Siam (the official name until 1939), is a country in Southeast Asia on the Mainland Southeast Asia, Indochinese Peninsula. With a population of almost 66 million, it spa ...
as the War that Led to the Loss of Queen Suriyothai (). The
casus belli A (; ) is an act or an event that either provokes or is used to justify a war. A ''casus belli'' involves direct offenses or threats against the nation declaring the war, whereas a ' involves offenses or threats against its ally—usually one bou ...
have been stated as a Burmese attempt to expand their territory eastwards after a political crisis in Ayutthaya as well as an attempt to stop Siamese incursions into the upper
Tenasserim coast Tanintharyi Region (, ; Mon: or ; formerly Tenasserim Division and Tanintharyi Division) is a region of Myanmar, covering the long narrow southern part of the country on the northern Malay Peninsula, reaching to the Kra Isthmus. It borders th ...
. The war, according to the Burmese, began in January 1547 when Siamese forces conquered the frontier town of
Tavoy Dawei (, ; , ; , RTGS: ''Thawai'', ; formerly known as Tavoy) is a city in south-eastern Myanmar and is the capital of the Tanintharyi Region, formerly known as the Tenasserim Division, on the eastern bank of the Dawei River. The city is about ...
(Dawei). Later in the year, the Burmese forces led by Gen. Saw Lagun Ein retook the Upper Tenasserim coast down to Tavoy. Next year, in October 1548, three Burmese armies led by King
Tabinshwehti Tabinshwehti (, ; 16 April 1516 – 30 April 1550) was King of Burma from 1530 to 1550, and the founder of the First Toungoo Empire. His military campaigns (1534–1549) created the largest kingdom in Burma since the fall of the Pagan Empire ...
and his deputy
Bayinnaung , title = King of Toungoo , image = Bayinnaung.JPG , caption = Statue of Bayinnaung in front of the National Museum of Myanmar , reign = 30 April 1550 – 10 October 1581 , coronation = 11 January 1551 at Taungoo, ...
invaded Siam through the Three Pagodas Pass. The Burmese forces penetrated up to the capital city of Ayutthaya but could not take the heavily fortified city. One month into the siege, Siamese counterattacks broke the siege, and drove back the invasion force. A truce was agreed in February 1549. The Burmese negotiated a safe retreat in exchange for the return of two important Siamese nobles (the heir apparent
Prince Ramesuan Prince Ramesuan (; ; d. November 1564) was a Siamese prince and military commander during the Ayutthaya Kingdom (Ayutthaya period) in the 16th century. He was a son of Prince Thianracha (later King Maha Chakkraphat) and his wife Suriyothai (later ...
, and Thammaracha of
Phitsanulok Phitsanulok (, ) is a city municipality in northern Thailand and the capital of Phitsanulok province. It had a city population of 60,827 and an urban population of approximately 200,000 in 2024, making it Thailand's 19th-most populous city p ...
) whom they had captured. The successful defense preserved Siamese independence for 15 years. However, this war was not decisive. The next Burmese invasion in 1563 would force a Siamese surrender in February 1564, and make Ayutthaya a
vassal A vassal or liege subject is a person regarded as having a mutual obligation to a lord or monarch, in the context of the feudal system in medieval Europe. While the subordinate party is called a vassal, the dominant party is called a suzerain ...
state of Burma for the first time.


Background


Rise of Toungoo Dynasty

Burma in the 15th century was divided into four principal power centers: the
Ava Kingdom The Ava Kingdom (, ; INN-wa pyi) also known as Inwa Kingdom or Kingdom of Ava was the dominant kingdom that ruled upper Burma (Myanmar) from 1365 to 1555. Founded in 1365, the kingdom was the successor state to the petty kingdoms of Myinsa ...
in present-day central Burma, the
Mon Mon, MON or Mon. may refer to: Places * Mon State, a subdivision of Myanmar * Mon, India, a town in Nagaland * Mon district, Nagaland * Mon, Raebareli, a village in Uttar Pradesh, India * Mon, Switzerland, a village in the Canton of Grisons * A ...
-speaking Hanthawaddy Kingdom on the southern coast, the
Mrauk-U Kingdom The Kingdom of Mrauk-U (Arakanese language, Arakanese: မြောက်ဦး ဘုရင့်နိုင်ငံတော်) was a kingdom that existed on the Arakan coastal plain from 1429 to 1785. Based in the capital Mrauk-U, near t ...
(
Arakan Arakan ( or ; , ), formerly anglicised as Aracan, is the historical geographical name for the northeastern coastal region of the Bay of Bengal, covering present-day Bangladesh and Myanmar. The region was called "Arakan" for centuries. It is ...
) in the west, and various
Shan States The Shan States were a collection of minor Shan people, Shan kingdoms called ''mueang, möng'' whose rulers bore the title ''saopha'' (''sawbwa''). In British rule in Burma, British Burma, they were analogous to the princely states of Britis ...
in the east and the north. Beginning in the 1480s, Ava began to disintegrate into even smaller kingdoms. By the early 15th century, Ava's former vassals—
Mohnyin Mohnyin (, ; ) is a town in Kachin State, Myanmar. It is the administrative center for both Mohnyin Township and Mohnyin District Mohnyin District () is a Districts of Burma, district of the Kachin State in northern Myanmar. The administrative c ...
(and its allies
Confederation of Shan States The Shan States were a collection of minor Shan kingdoms called '' möng'' whose rulers bore the title '' saopha'' (''sawbwa''). In British Burma, they were analogous to the princely states of British India. The term "Shan States" was fir ...
) in the north and the Prome Kingdom (
Pyay Pyay, and formerly anglicised as Prome, is the principal town of Pyay Township in the Bago Region in Myanmar. Pyay is located on the bank of the Irrawaddy River, north-west of Yangon. It is an important trade center for the Ayeyarwady Delta, Centr ...
) in the south—were regularly raiding their former overlord's territory with increasing frequency and intensity.Harvey 1925: 100–109 During this period of tumult,
Mingyi Nyo Mingyi Nyo (; also spelled Minkyi-nyo; ; 1459–1530) was the founder of the Toungoo dynasty of Burma (Myanmar). Under his 45-year leadership (1485–1530), Toungoo (Taungoo), grew from a remote backwater vassal state of Ava Kingdom to a small bu ...
, then governor of
Toungoo Taungoo (, ''Tauñngu myoú''; ), also spelled Toungoo and formerly Toung-ngú, is a district-level city in the Bago Region of Myanmar, 220 km from Yangon, towards the north-eastern end of the division, with mountain ranges to the east an ...
(Taungoo), a small region located at the southeastern corner of Ava Kingdom also declared independence in 1510, and largely stayed out of the internecine fighting in the following years. When Ava fell to the combined forces of the Confederation and Prome in 1527, many people fled to Toungoo, the only region in Upper Burma at peace.Fernquest 2005: 20–50Harvey 1925: 124–125 In 1530, Mingyi Nyo's son 14-year-old
Tabinshwehti Tabinshwehti (, ; 16 April 1516 – 30 April 1550) was King of Burma from 1530 to 1550, and the founder of the First Toungoo Empire. His military campaigns (1534–1549) created the largest kingdom in Burma since the fall of the Pagan Empire ...
succeeded him as king. Toungoo's stability continued to attract manpower from the surrounding regions, especially after 1533 when the Confederation sacked its erstwhile ally Prome. The tiny Toungoo was now the only ethnic
Burman Burman is a surname. Notable people with the surname include: *Anneli Burman (born 1963), Swedish curler *Barney Burman, American make-up artist *Barry Burman (1943–2001), English figurative artist *Ben Lucien Burman (1896–1984), American aut ...
-led kingdom, and one surrounded by much larger kingdoms. Fortunately for Toungoo, the Confederation was distracted by internal leadership disputes, and Hanthawaddy, then the most powerful kingdom of all post-
Pagan Paganism (, later 'civilian') is a term first used in the fourth century by early Christians for people in the Roman Empire who practiced polytheism, or ethnic religions other than Christianity, Judaism, and Samaritanism. In the time of the ...
kingdoms, was weakly led. Tabinshwehti decided not to wait until the larger kingdoms' attention turned to him. In 1534, Tabinshwehti and his deputy
Bayinnaung , title = King of Toungoo , image = Bayinnaung.JPG , caption = Statue of Bayinnaung in front of the National Museum of Myanmar , reign = 30 April 1550 – 10 October 1581 , coronation = 11 January 1551 at Taungoo, ...
, then a couple of 18-year-olds, launched their first military campaign against Hanthawaddy. It was the first of a series of wars by Toungoo that would engulf western and central mainland Southeast Asia for the next 80 years. In 1538–1539, the upstart kingdom captured Hanthawaddy's capital
Pegu Bago (formerly spelled Pegu; , ), formerly known as Hanthawaddy, is a city and the capital of the Bago Region in Myanmar. It is located north-east of Yangon. Etymology The Burmese name Bago (ပဲခူး) is likely derived from the Mon lang ...
(Bago), and in May 1541,
Martaban Mottama (, ; Muttama , ; formerly Martaban) is a town in the Thaton District of Mon State, Myanmar. Located on the west bank of the Thanlwin river (Salween), on the opposite side of Mawlamyaing, Mottama was the capital of the Martaban Kingdo ...
(
Mottama Mottama (, ; Muttama , ; formerly Martaban) is a town in the Thaton District of Mon State, Myanmar. Located on the west bank of the Thanlwin river (Salween), on the opposite side of Mawlamyaing, Mottama was the capital of the Martaban Kingdo ...
) and
Moulmein Mawlamyine (also spelled Mawlamyaing; , ; ; , ), formerly Moulmein, is the fourth-largest city in Myanmar (Burma), ''World Gazetteer'' southeast of Yangon and south of Thaton, at the mouth of Thanlwin (Salween) River. Mawlamyine was an ancien ...
(Mawlamyaing).Harvey 1925: 153–158Htin Aung 1967: 106–112 Significantly, for the first time, the Burmese and the Siamese shared a common border in the upper-
Tenasserim coast Tanintharyi Region (, ; Mon: or ; formerly Tenasserim Division and Tanintharyi Division) is a region of Myanmar, covering the long narrow southern part of the country on the northern Malay Peninsula, reaching to the Kra Isthmus. It borders th ...
. For the next six years, Toungoo was busy fighting against Hanthawaddy's allies: Prome (1542), the Confederation (1542–1544), and Prome's ally Mrauk-U (1546–1547). On the eve of the Siamese war, in 1547, Toungoo controlled a Lower Burma region from
Pagan Paganism (, later 'civilian') is a term first used in the fourth century by early Christians for people in the Roman Empire who practiced polytheism, or ethnic religions other than Christianity, Judaism, and Samaritanism. In the time of the ...
(Bagan) in the north to Moulmein in the south.


Crisis in Ayutthaya

King
Chairacha Chairachathirat (, ), or ''Chai'' reigned 1534–1546 as King of the Ayutthaya kingdom of Siam. His reign was remarkable for the influx of Portuguese traders, mercenaries, and early Modern warfare technology. Birth The evidence regarding his ...
of Ayutthaya was a scion of the
Suphannaphum Dynasty The Ayutthaya Kingdom or the Empire of Ayutthaya was a Thai people, Thai kingdom that existed in Southeast Asia from 1351 to 1767, centered around the city of Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya (city), Ayutthaya, in Siam, or present-day Thailand. Europe ...
, which took control of Siam from the
Uthong Dynasty The Ayutthaya Kingdom or the Empire of Ayutthaya was a Thai people, Thai kingdom that existed in Southeast Asia from 1351 to 1767, centered around the city of Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya (city), Ayutthaya, in Siam, or present-day Thailand. Europe ...
in 1409. He came to the throne in 1533 after usurping the crown of his five-year-old nephew, Phra Ratsadathirat, who had reigned for only four months.Wood 1924: 100 The boy's father was King
Borommarachathirat IV Borommarachathirat IV (; also spelt Borom Rachathirat IV), also known as Borommaracha No Phutthangkun (; also spelt Borom Racha No Buddhakura), born Athittayawong (), was the short-reigning king of Ayutthaya from 1529 to 1533. Life and reign B ...
, Chairacha's half-brother. The child-king was subsequently executed by his uncle.Wood 1924: 101 King Chairacha died in 1546 after reigning for thirteen years, leaving the throne to his eleven-year-old son, Prince Kaeofa, who was crowned King Yot Fa.Wood 1924: 108 As the new king had not come of age, the role of
regent In a monarchy, a regent () is a person appointed to govern a state because the actual monarch is a minor, absent, incapacitated or unable to discharge their powers and duties, or the throne is vacant and a new monarch has not yet been dete ...
was assumed by his mother, Chairacha's chief consort
Si Sudachan Sisudachan (; early 1500s – 1548 in Ayutthaya) was a queen of Ayutthaya by marriage to King Chairacha of Ayutthaya. At his death, between 1546 and 1548, she served as regent for her son Yot Fa. According to the chronicles of that time, she wa ...
(, also spelled Sri Sudachan), who was a descendant of the Uthong royal house. Chairacha's half-brother and
Uparaja Uparaja is a noble title reserved for the viceroy in India and the Buddhist dynasties in Burma, Cambodia, Laos and Thailand, as well as some of their minor tributary kingdoms. It is ultimately from Sanskrit उपराज ''upa- rāja'' equivalent ...
, Prince Thianracha, was another contender for the regency. To avoid court intrigues and conflict with Si Sudachan, Prince Thianracha retreated to a
monastery A monastery is a building or complex of buildings comprising the domestic quarters and workplaces of Monasticism, monastics, monks or nuns, whether living in Cenobitic monasticism, communities or alone (hermits). A monastery generally includes a ...
as a
monk A monk (; from , ''monachos'', "single, solitary" via Latin ) is a man who is a member of a religious order and lives in a monastery. A monk usually lives his life in prayer and contemplation. The concept is ancient and can be seen in many reli ...
. It is said that even before the previous King's death, Si Sudachan was having an adulterous relationship with a paramour styled
Khun Khun may refer to: * Khun (, long vowel, middle tone), the colloquial Thai name for the Golden Shower Tree * Khun (courtesy title) (, short vowel, middle tone), a common Thai honorific * Khun (noble title) (, short vowel, rising tone), a former ...
Chinnarat, who was keeper of the Royal chapel or
cloister A cloister (from Latin , "enclosure") is a covered walk, open gallery, or open Arcade (architecture), arcade running along the walls of buildings and forming a quadrangle (architecture), quadrangle or garth. The attachment of a cloister to a cat ...
(, Ho Phra Thep Bidon) within the Royal Palace of Ayutthaya.
Fernão Mendes Pinto Fernão Mendes Pinto (; 1509 – 8 July 1583) was a Portuguese people, Portuguese explorer and writer. His voyages are recorded in ''Pilgrimage'' (), his autobiographical memoir, which was published posthumously in 1614. The historical accura ...
, a contemporary Portuguese explorer, recorded a rumour alleging that Si Sudachan had poisoned her husband in order to take control of the throne, and perhaps to restore the fallen House of Uthong to power. In support of these allegations, she had many prominent officials executed, including the aged and high-ranking Phraya Mahasena (Minister of Defence), and replaced them with her favourites.Wood 1924: 109 It was also recorded that she was heavily pregnant and soon gave birth to a daughter; unable to conceal this secret, she mounted a coup, removed her son and put her paramour on the throne. He was crowned as King (or Khun) Worawongsathirat. It was said that the young King Yot Fa was either executed or poisoned by his mother.Wood 1924: 110 Worawongsathirat's reign was short. Within 42 days several nobles and government officials of Ayutthaya plotted to remove him from the throne. The conspirators were led by Khun Phiren Thorathep, a descendant on his father's side to the
kings of Sukhothai Kings or King's may refer to: *Kings: The sovereign heads of states and/or nations. *One of several works known as the "Book of Kings": **The Books of Kings part of the Bible, divided into two parts **The ''Shahnameh'', an 11th-century epic Persia ...
and a relation on his mother's side to King Chairacha. The usurper was lured from the safety of the palace into the jungle with a promise of capturing a large elephant. As the usurper king, Si Sudachan and their infant daughter proceeded by
royal barge A royal barge is a vessel that is used by a monarch for ceremonial processions, and (historically) for routine transport, usually on a river or inland waterway. It may also be known as a state barge, and may be used on occasion by other members o ...
, Khun Phiren Thorathep and his conspirators sprang an
ambush An ambush is a surprise attack carried out by people lying in wait in a concealed position. The concealed position itself or the concealed person(s) may also be called an "". Ambushes as a basic military tactics, fighting tactic of soldi ...
, killing all three.Wood 1924: 111Damrong Rajanubhab 2001: 14 Thianracha was immediately invited to leave the
Sangha Sangha or saṃgha () is a term meaning "association", "assembly", "company" or "community". In a political context, it was historically used to denote a governing assembly in a republic or a kingdom, and for a long time, it has been used b ...
and assume the throne as King
Maha Chakkraphat Maha Chakkraphat (, ; lit.: 'The Great Emperor'; 1509 – 1569; Burmese: မဟာစက္ကဝတ္တိ၊ မဟာစကြဝတေး၊ မဟာစကြာမင်း) was king of the Ayutthaya kingdom from 1548 to 1564 and 1568 to 1 ...
.Damrong Rajanubhab 2001: 15 One of his first acts was to appoint Khun Phiren Thorathep as King of Sukhothai (but as a
vassal A vassal or liege subject is a person regarded as having a mutual obligation to a lord or monarch, in the context of the feudal system in medieval Europe. While the subordinate party is called a vassal, the dominant party is called a suzerain ...
to himself) with a capital at the great fortified town of
Phitsanulok Phitsanulok (, ) is a city municipality in northern Thailand and the capital of Phitsanulok province. It had a city population of 60,827 and an urban population of approximately 200,000 in 2024, making it Thailand's 19th-most populous city p ...
. The king then bestowed upon him the title Maha Thammaracha (a title used by the last four kings of Sukhothai), along with the hand of his daughter Princess Sawatdirat in marriage.Wood 1924: 112Damrong Rajanubhab 2001: 13


Tenasserim (1547–1548)

The war began in 1547.Harvey 1925: 158 The casus belli have been stated as an attempt by the
Toungoo Dynasty ''taungnguumainn saat'' , conventional_long_name = Toungoo dynasty , common_name = Taungoo dynasty , status = Empire/Monarchy, Kingdom , event_start = Independence from Kingdom of Ava, Ava Kingdom , yea ...
of Burma to expand its territory eastwards after a political crisis in Ayutthaya as well as an attempt to stop Ayutthaya's incursions into the upper
Tenasserim coast Tanintharyi Region (, ; Mon: or ; formerly Tenasserim Division and Tanintharyi Division) is a region of Myanmar, covering the long narrow southern part of the country on the northern Malay Peninsula, reaching to the Kra Isthmus. It borders th ...
. According to the
Burmese chronicles The royal chronicles of Myanmar ( ; also known as Burmese chronicles) are detailed and continuous chronicles of the Burmese monarchy, monarchy of Myanmar (Burma). The chronicles were written on different media such as parabaik paper, palm-leaf ...
, a Siamese force of 6,000 had occupied
Tavoy Dawei (, ; , ; , RTGS: ''Thawai'', ; formerly known as Tavoy) is a city in south-eastern Myanmar and is the capital of the Tanintharyi Region, formerly known as the Tenasserim Division, on the eastern bank of the Dawei River. The city is about ...
(Dawei) in the Upper Tenasserim coast, which he considered his territory, by January 1547.Burmese chronicles (Hmannan Vol. 2 2003: 238) say Tabinshwehti learned of the Siamese occupation of Tavoy before he agreed to a truce with King
Min Bin Min Bin (Arakanese language, Arakanese and , , Arakanese pronunciation: ; also known as Min Ba-Gyi (မင်းဗာကြီး, , Meng Ba-Gri, Arakanese pronunciation: ); 1493–1554) was a king of Mrauk-U Kingdom, Arakan, a former Adminis ...
of Mrauk-U on 31 January 1547 (9th waxing of Tabodwe 908 ME).
As frontiers in the pre-modern period were less defined and often overlapped,Fernquest 2005: 286 the "occupation" may have been an attempt by Ayutthaya to reinforce the frontier town, which was claimed by Toungoo. At any rate, Tabinshwehti sent a sizable force of 12,000 (8,000 army, 4,000 navy) led by Saw Lagun Ein, viceroy of Martaban, to take over Tavoy c. October/November 1547.The invasion likely began in late October/early November 1547 although Burmese chronicles (Hmannan Vol. 2 2003: 238–239) simply say the attack on Tavoy began in 909 ME (30 March 1547 to 28 March 1548). The attack probably did not take place in early 1547 since Tabinshwehti's troops evacuated southern Arakan only on 26 March 1547 (5th waxing of Late Tagu 908 ME). The troops would have arrived back only in mid-to-late April, leaving just about a month for a military campaign before the rainy season began in June. The invasion, like most wars by the Burmese kings, probably began toward the end of rainy season and after the end of Buddhist Lent, which ended on 13 October 1547 (New moon of Thadingyut 909 ME) that year. A joint land-naval attack on Tavoy drove out the Siamese forces led by the Lord of Kanchanaburi to lower Tenasserim.Hmannan Vol. 2 2003: 238–239


Invasion of mainland Siam (1548–1549)


Burmese battle plan

Tabinshwehti was not satisfied, and planned an invasion of Siam itself. By October 1548, he had assembled another 12,000-strong force that also included about 400 Portuguese mercenaries led by Diogo Soares.Harvey 1925: 158–159 The invasion force would have been equipped with the conventional weapons of the day:
sword A sword is an edged and bladed weapons, edged, bladed weapon intended for manual cutting or thrusting. Its blade, longer than a knife or dagger, is attached to a hilt and can be straight or curved. A thrusting sword tends to have a straighter ...
s, bow and arrows, and
spear A spear is a polearm consisting of a shaft, usually of wood, with a pointed head. The head may be simply the sharpened end of the shaft itself, as is the case with Fire hardening, fire hardened spears, or it may be made of a more durable materia ...
s. The more elite members would also carry
matchlock A matchlock or firelock is a historical type of firearm wherein the gunpowder is ignited by a burning piece of flammable cord or twine that is in contact with the gunpowder through a mechanism that the musketeer activates by pulling a lever or Tri ...
s or
musket A musket is a muzzle-loaded long gun that appeared as a smoothbore weapon in the early 16th century, at first as a heavier variant of the arquebus, capable of penetrating plate armour. By the mid-16th century, this type of musket gradually dis ...
s. These
early modern weapons Early may refer to: Places in the United States * Early, Iowa, a city * Early, Texas, a city * Early Branch, a stream in Missouri * Early County, Georgia * Fort Early, Georgia, an early 19th century fort Music * Early B, stage name of Jamaican d ...
having been introduced to the two kingdoms by the Portuguese a few decades earlier. Tabinshwehti took personal command and gathered his forces at
Martaban Mottama (, ; Muttama , ; formerly Martaban) is a town in the Thaton District of Mon State, Myanmar. Located on the west bank of the Thanlwin river (Salween), on the opposite side of Mawlamyaing, Mottama was the capital of the Martaban Kingdo ...
(Mottama).Phayre 1967: 100 The invasion forces were organized into three main armies: the vanguard army led by Bayinnaung, the main army led by Tabinshwehti, and the rearguard army led by Thado Dhamma Yaza and Mingyi Swe, each with a strength of 4,000 troops. Their route of invasion was via the Three Pagodas Pass towards
Kanchanaburi Kanchanaburi (, ) is a town municipality ('' thesaban mueang'') in Kanchanaburi Province, Thailand. The town of lies to the southeast of Erawan National Park within Kanchanaburi Province, approximately 120km west of Bangkok. In 2006 it had a po ...
, and then to the capital
Ayutthaya Ayutthaya, Ayudhya, or Ayuthia may refer to: * Ayutthaya Kingdom, a Thai kingdom that existed from 1350 to 1767 ** Ayutthaya Historical Park, the ruins of the old capital city of the Ayutthaya Kingdom * Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya province (locall ...
.


Start of invasion

On 14 October 1548 (13th waxing of Tazaungmon 910 ME), the three Burmese armies left Martaban to start the invasion. The armies marched along the
Ataran River Ataran River () is a river of Myanmar (most of its course) and Thailand (the uppermost part). In Thailand, it is usually known as the Kasat River. It merges into the larger Gyaing River and Salween River near the city of Mawlamyine. A main tribut ...
toward the Three Pagodas Pass, entered Siam along the
Khwae Noi River The River Kwai (), more correctly Khwae Noi (, , 'small tributary') or Khwae Sai Yok (, ), is a river in western Thailand. It rises to the east of the Salween in the north–south spine of the Bilauktaung range near, but not over the border wi ...
to the town of Sai Yok, then overland towards the
Khwae Yai River The Khwae Yai River (, , ), also known as the Si Sawat ( ), is a river in western Thailand. It has its source in the Tenasserim Hills and flows for about through Sangkhla Buri, Si Sawat, and Mueang Districts of Kanchanaburi Province, where ...
. From there they travelled by boat toward the town of
Kanchanaburi Kanchanaburi (, ) is a town municipality ('' thesaban mueang'') in Kanchanaburi Province, Thailand. The town of lies to the southeast of Erawan National Park within Kanchanaburi Province, approximately 120km west of Bangkok. In 2006 it had a po ...
.Damrong Rajanubhab 2001: 16 Tabinshwehti travelled in great state with a massive retinue of elephants and servants. Many of these elephants carried muskets and bronze
cannon A cannon is a large-caliber gun classified as a type of artillery, which usually launches a projectile using explosive chemical propellant. Gunpowder ("black powder") was the primary propellant before the invention of smokeless powder during th ...
; these were kept close to the king. Royal elephants were rafted across rivers, while the ordinary war elephants marched upstream to a ford. The Burmese king was accompanied by his crown prince Bayinnaung, Bayinnaung's thirteen-year-old son
Nanda Nanda, including Nanda (南大), may refer to: Education * Nanchang University (南昌大学), a public university in Nanchang, Jiangxi, China * Nanhua University (南华大学), a public university in Hengyang, Hunan, China * Nanjing Universi ...
, and many richly attired lords. Hundreds of workmen marched ahead of the king's retinue, to pitch a richly decorated wooden camp, painted and gilded for the King's use, only to pack it up and pitch it at a new location every day. The invasion initially met little resistance, as the Burmese forces were too large for the small guard posts around the border. Upon hearing of the Burmese invasion, Maha Chakkraphat mobilized his kingdom, then gathered his forces at
Suphanburi Suphan Buri () is a town ('' thesaban mueang'') in central Thailand. It covers ''tambon'' Tha Philiang and parts of ''tambons'' Rua Yai and Tha Rahat, all within the Mueang Suphan Buri District. As of 2006 it had a population of 26,656. The tow ...
, a town just west of Ayutthaya.Damrong Rajanubhab 2001: 17 When Tabinshwehti and his army arrived at the walled town of Kanchanaburi, they found it completely deserted.Damrong Rajanubhab 2001: 18 About a month into the invasion, mid-November 1548,The ''
Hmannan Yazawin ''Hmannan Maha Yazawindawgyi'' (, ; commonly, ''Hmannan Yazawin''; known in English as the ''Glass Palace Chronicle'') is the first Burmese chronicle, official chronicle of Konbaung Dynasty of Burma (Myanmar). It was compiled by the Royal Histori ...
'' chronicle (Hmannan Vol. 2 2003: 241) uses the term , , which can be translated as either "full moon" or "full month" (completion of a month), to describe when he began the march to Ayutthaya. If it was full moon, the date of departure from Kanchanaburi would be 15 November 1548 (Full moon of Natdaw 910 ME). If it was full month, it would be 13 November 1548 (13th waxing of Natdaw 910 ME).
the King of Burma then continued his march eastward, capturing the villages of Ban Thuan, Kaphan Tru, and Chorakhe Sam Phan. The Burmese continued their advance and captured the ancient town of
Uthong King U-thongThe Royal Institute.'List of monarchs Ayutthaya''. (; ) or King Ramathibodi I (; ; , 1314–1369) was the first king of the kingdom Ayutthaya Kingdom, Ayutthaya (now part of Thailand), reigning from 1351 to 1369. Origins and Reign ...
as well as the villages of Don Rakhang and Nong Sarai and closing in on Suphanburi. When the Burmese attacked the town, Siamese defenders could not withstand the onslaught and retreated towards Ayutthaya. Tabinshwehti ordered his army southeast along two canals, and crossed the
Chao Phraya river The Chao Phraya River is the major river in Thailand, with its low alluvial plain forming the centre of the country. It flows through Bangkok and then into the Gulf of Thailand. Etymology Written evidence of the river being referred to by the ...
near Phong Phaeng. From here he encamped his army directly north of the Siamese capital of
Ayutthaya Ayutthaya, Ayudhya, or Ayuthia may refer to: * Ayutthaya Kingdom, a Thai kingdom that existed from 1350 to 1767 ** Ayutthaya Historical Park, the ruins of the old capital city of the Ayutthaya Kingdom * Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya province (locall ...
on a field called the Lumpli plain.


Battle of Ayutthaya


At the outskirts

Maha Chakkraphat decided to leave the capital with his forces, to engage Tabinshwehti and test the Burmese strength. On this occasion, he mounted his chief war elephant. Accompanying him were his Chief Queen,
Sri Suriyothai Suriyothai (, , ; Burmese: သူရိယောဒယ) was a royal queen consort during the 16th century Ayutthaya period of Siam (now Thailand). She is famous for having given up her life in the defense of her husband, King Maha Chakkraphat ...
, and one of their young daughters, Princess Boromdilok, the two riding together on a smaller war elephant. Both royal ladies were dressed in male military attire (helmet and armour), with the queen wearing the uniform of an
Uparaja Uparaja is a noble title reserved for the viceroy in India and the Buddhist dynasties in Burma, Cambodia, Laos and Thailand, as well as some of their minor tributary kingdoms. It is ultimately from Sanskrit उपराज ''upa- rāja'' equivalent ...
. Also accompanying their father on elephant mounts were two sons, the Uparaja and heir apparent,
Prince Ramesuan Prince Ramesuan (; ; d. November 1564) was a Siamese prince and military commander during the Ayutthaya Kingdom (Ayutthaya period) in the 16th century. He was a son of Prince Thianracha (later King Maha Chakkraphat) and his wife Suriyothai (later ...
, and his brother Prince Mahin.Wood 1924: 113 A battle certainly ensued although there are naturally two accounts as to what actually took place. According to the Burmese chronicles, the Burmese command fielded an army led by Thado Dhamma Yaza, the Viceroy of Prome, as a decoy and the two armies lurked on the flanks in order to encircle any overstretched Siamese forces. As planned, the Siamese vanguard troops pressed on Thado Dhamma Yaza's army, allowing Bayinnaung's army waiting on the left flank to encircle the Siamese forces, which subsequently were wiped out. Tabinshwehti's army on the right flank drove back the remaining Siamese forces into the city.Hmannan Vol. 2 2003: 241–242


Elephant duel

According to Thai tradition, Thado Dhamma Yaza and Maha Chakkraphat engaged in single elephant-combat. (The custom of the time was for two commanders/leaders of the same status to fight in single combat. It is unclear as to why the Siamese king would have accepted to face someone of lesser rank. If he did issue the challenge, he would have challenged his counterpart Tabinshwehti and accepted to face only Tabinshwehti.) The Thai narrative continues that Maha Chakkraphat's elephant panicked and gave flight, charging away from the enemy; Thado Dhamma Yaza swiftly gave chase. Fearing for the life of her husband, Queen Sri Suriyothai charged ahead to put her elephant between the King and the Viceroy, thereby blocking his pursuit.Damrong Rajanubhab 2001: 19 The Viceroy then engaged the Queen in single combat, fatally cleaving her from shoulder to heart with his spear, also wounding her daughter—both mother and child met their deaths on the back of the same elephant. It is said that the Viceroy did not know he was fighting a woman until his blow struck—as she fell dying her helmet came off, exposing her long hair. Prince Ramesuan and Prince Mahin then urged their elephants forward to fight the Viceroy, drove him and his remaining forces from the field, then carried the bodies of their mother and sister back to Ayutthaya. The Siamese king meanwhile rallied his army, and retreated in good order back towards the capital. The Burmese chronicles however do not mention any instance of single combat (on elephant-back or otherwise) by the viceroy of Prome.Burmese chronicles (Maha Yazawin Vol. 2 2006: 181–192) and (Hmannan Vol. 2 2003: 238–248) devote a detailed account of the invasion, down to the names of war elephants the high royalty rode on. Thado Dhamma Yaza rode the war elephant named Ye Htut Mingala (Hmannan Vol. 2 2033: 244). If he was victorious in combat against any enemy of significance, such a story with a favorable outcome would likely have been included in the chronicles. At any rate, the remaining Siamese forces retreated. Tabinshwehti readied his army for a
siege A siege () . is a military blockade of a city, or fortress, with the intent of conquering by attrition, or by well-prepared assault. Siege warfare (also called siegecrafts or poliorcetics) is a form of constant, low-intensity conflict charact ...
of the Siamese capital. He made his camp north of the city, with his headquarters at Klum Dong, and had his commanders encamp in strategic places surrounding the city walls, Bayinnaung at Phaniat, the Viceroy at Ban Mai Makham, and the Governor of Bassein at the plain of Prachet. The Burmese would not, however, take the Siamese capital so easily.Damrong Rajanubhab 2001: 20


Siege

Ayutthaya sat on an
island An island or isle is a piece of land, distinct from a continent, completely surrounded by water. There are continental islands, which were formed by being split from a continent by plate tectonics, and oceanic islands, which have never been ...
surrounded by three rivers—the
Lopburi River The Lopburi River (, , ) is a tributary of the Chao Phraya River in central Thailand. It splits from the Chao Phraya river at Tambon Bang Phutsa, Singburi. Passing through Tha Wung district and the town of Lopburi, it enters the Chao Phraya tog ...
to the north, the
Chao Phraya River The Chao Phraya River is the major river in Thailand, with its low alluvial plain forming the centre of the country. It flows through Bangkok and then into the Gulf of Thailand. Etymology Written evidence of the river being referred to by the ...
to the west and south, and the
Pa Sak River The Pa Sak River (, , Pronunciation is a river in central Thailand. The river originates in the Phetchabun Mountains, Dan Sai District, Loei Province, and passes through Phetchabun Province as the backbone of the province. It then passes throu ...
to the east, forming a formidable natural
moat A moat is a deep, broad ditch dug around a castle, fortification, building, or town, historically to provide it with a preliminary line of defence. Moats can be dry or filled with water. In some places, moats evolved into more extensive water d ...
. The Chao Phraya basin where Ayutthaya is situated was low and prone to
flooding A flood is an overflow of water ( or rarely other fluids) that submerges land that is usually dry. In the sense of "flowing water", the word may also be applied to the inflow of the tide. Floods are of significant concern in agriculture, civi ...
—especially intense during the
rainy season The rainy season is the time of year when most of a region's average annual rainfall occurs. Rainy Season may also refer to: * ''Rainy Season'' (short story), a 1989 short horror story by Stephen King * "Rainy Season", a 2018 song by Monni * '' ...
when torrential waters flowed in great quantity from the north along the Lopburi River. This flood would begin approximately in July and end somewhere between October and November, giving Tabinshwehti only five months to capture Ayutthaya—otherwise his camp grounds and supply routes would be flooded. There was also the possibility that the flood could trap his forces. The low, swampy area around the city was laced with numerous canals thronging with gun boats armed with cannon to repulse any attempt at an attack on the city. Also, the Burmese had only small cannons that they had brought with them, while the Siamese had large cannons mounted along the city walls. The Burmese had the city surrounded, but without the ability to cross the rivers or breach the city walls with cannon fire, were left to camp around it instead, while the interconnected waterways to the north and south made it fairly easy to resupply the defenders in the city. Fifty Portuguese mercenaries, who had elected Galeote Pereira as their captain, defended the weakest part of the city wall for Maha Chakkraphat. Unable to take the city conventionally, Tabinshwehti offered bribes to these defenders. The Portuguese reacted with derision, and refused. When a Siamese commander heard of this, he swung open the gates of the city and dared the Burmese King to bring the money—a dare that was ignored. Maha Chakkraphat, being unable to repel the Burmese, sent a message to his son-in-law Maha Thammaracha at
Phitsanulok Phitsanulok (, ) is a city municipality in northern Thailand and the capital of Phitsanulok province. It had a city population of 60,827 and an urban population of approximately 200,000 in 2024, making it Thailand's 19th-most populous city p ...
, ordering his vassal to come to his aid by bringing an army southwards towards Ayutthaya and if possible to engage the enemy in battle. Thammaracha quickly mobilized his forces and with the help of the Governor of Sawankhalok, marched southward with a large army to attack the Burmese rear. Upon hearing of this and on the advice of Bayinnaung; Tabinshwehti decided to withdraw, abandoning the mission altogether. His decision was compounded by news from Burma that the Mons, who had never been entirely subjugated by the Taungoo dynasty, rebelled in the absence of the king. Other factors included the scarcity of supplies and sickness in his army, which was not prepared for a long siege. Just one month into the siege, the Burmese command decided to withdraw.


Battle of Kamphaeng Phet


Retreat from Siam

After failing to capture the capital of Ayutthaya, the Burmese forces marched north to get back to Burma via the Mae Lamao pass (in modern-day
Mae Sot Mae Sot (; , ; , ; , ) is a city in western Thailand that shares a border with Myanmar to the west. It is notable as a trade hub and for its substantial population of Burmese migrants and refugees. The city is part of Tak Province, 87 km fr ...
, Tak).


Siege of Kamphaeng Phet

While retreating back to Burma, the Burmese army tried to plunder the ancient and wealthy town of
Kamphaeng Phet Kamphaeng Phet is a town (''thesaban mueang'') in central Thailand, former capital of the Kamphaeng Phet Province. It covers the complete ''tambon ''Tambon'' (, ) is a local governmental unit in Thailand. Below district (''amphoe'') and provi ...
but the town was too well fortified. With the help of Portuguese mercenaries, the governor of Kamphaeng Phet repelled the Burmese with flaming projectiles that forced the Burmese to cease using their cannons and protect them with coverings of damp hides.


Battle of Kamphaeng Phet

Maha Chakkraphat saw the Burmese army's retreat as an opportunity take advantage of their weakness, so he ordered Prince Ramesuan and Thammaracha to follow and harass the enemy out of Siamese territory. For three days, the Siamese chased the invaders, inflicting great losses upon them.Phayre 1967: 101Cocks 1919: 44 Once the forces of Ramesuan and Thammaracha closed in, Tabinshwehti made a stand near Kamphaeng Phet, dividing his forces on both sides of the road. The Siamese in their eagerness fell into the trap.Damrong Rajanubhab 2001: 21 The Burmese captured both Prince Ramesuan and Maha Thammaracha as
prisoners of war A prisoner of war (POW) is a person held captive by a belligerent power during or immediately after an armed conflict. The earliest recorded usage of the phrase "prisoner of war" dates back to 1610. Belligerents hold prisoners of war for a ...
.Cocks 1919: 45


Truce

The capture of his heir and his son-in-law forced Maha Chakkraphat to negotiate with Tabinshwehti. The Siamese at once sent emissaries bearing gifts, offering a peaceful retreat in return for the two princes.Harvey 1925: 160 In exchange Maha Chakkraphat was forced to hand over to Tabinshwehti two prized male war elephants called Sri Mongkol () and Mongkol Thawip (). Once the elephants were handed over, the Burmese army retreated in peace. In addition to the two princes, Tabinshwehti also released many other prisoners he had captured during the campaign. According to the Burmese records, the Siamese king also agreed to provide an annual gift of 30 elephants, a token sum of money, and certain custom duties.Htin Aung 1967: 113 After the treaty, the Burmese king rested for eight days, and returned to Pegu. He arrived back at Pegu on 1 March 1549 (3rd waxing of Late Tagu 910 ME).Sein Lwin Lay 2006: 232


Aftermath

Despite his failure to take Ayutthaya, Tabinshwehti claimed to have regained control of the Tavoy frontier. Indeed, the Burmese chronicles claim the Siamese king had agreed to pay an annual tribute.Sein Lwin Lay 2006: 296 Even if this claim was true, the Toungoo Dynasty's control over Tavoy lasted a little over a year in any case. Tabinshwehti was assassinated just a year after the Siamese campaign on 30 April 1550, and the empire he had built in the previous 16 years quickly collapsed, with each town claiming a king. Even after Bayinnaung had restored the kingdom in the following years, the frontier region was likely under overlapping spheres of influence. (During his 1554–1555 campaign against Upper Burma, his southernmost garrison was at Ye,Hmannan Vol. 2 2003: 204 not Tavoy.) It was only in 1562 that Bayinnaung made an emphatic claim on the region by setting up a Burmese garrison at Tavoy,(Hmannan Vol. 2 2003: 338): Wednesday, Full moon of Waso 924 ME = 17 June 1562 in preparation for his invasion of Siam a year later.


Legacy

The war was the first of the many wars between Burma and Siam that would last well into the mid 19th-century. It was also the first time the city of Ayutthaya was actually attacked by a foreign enemy. The body of Queen Sri Suriyothai was placed at Suan Luang, the Royal Garden. Maha Chakkraphat ordered a grand
cremation Cremation is a method of Disposal of human corpses, final disposition of a corpse through Combustion, burning. Cremation may serve as a funeral or post-funeral rite and as an alternative to burial. In some countries, including India, Nepal, and ...
, and built a temple with a large
stupa In Buddhism, a stupa (, ) is a domed hemispherical structure containing several types of sacred relics, including images, statues, metals, and '' śarīra''—the remains of Buddhist monks or nuns. It is used as a place of pilgrimage and m ...
to house her remains. The temple, which still exists, is known as () and the stupa is called (). The temple and the stupa had been restored and rebuilt several times. Despite her stature among the Thais for her heroism, the
historicity Historicity is the historical actuality of persons and events, meaning the quality of being part of history instead of being a historical myth, legend, or fiction. The historicity of a claim about the past is its factual status. Historicity deno ...
of her story and her existence has been the subject of debate. This is based on the fact that the queen is not mentioned in either the recorded or popular history of
Myanmar Myanmar, officially the Republic of the Union of Myanmar; and also referred to as Burma (the official English name until 1989), is a country in northwest Southeast Asia. It is the largest country by area in Mainland Southeast Asia and has ...
. All the facts pertaining to her life were taken from fragments of the Siamese royal chronicle the ''Annals of Ayutthaya'' and an account by Domingos Seixas, a Portuguese explorer. The war led to the strengthening of Ayutthaya's defences, such as stronger walls and forts. A census of all able-bodied men was taken, as well as a massive hunt for wild elephants for use in future wars. The size of the navy was also increased.Damrong Rajanubhab 2001: 22–24Wood 1924: 114 The Siamese success at repelling the Burmese would not be repeated. This first ever invasion gave the Burmese an important experience on fighting with Siamese. The next invasion would be conducted by Bayinnaung, a man accustomed to fighting against Siamese soldiers and familiar with marching through Siamese terrain.Damrong Rajanubhab 2001: 22 The unrest in Burma delayed that next invasion for fifteen years, until the War of 1563 or the War of the White Elephants.


Media

The war, beginning with the death of Chairacha, was dramatized in the 2001 Thai historical drama ''
The Legend of Suriyothai ''The Legend of Suriyothai'' () is a 2001 Thai film written and directed by Chatrichalerm Yukol, which portrays the story of Queen Suriyothai, who died in battle in the Burmese–Siamese War of 1548 sacrificing herself to save the life of Ki ...
'', directed by Mom Chao
Chatrichalerm Yukol Prince Chatrichalerm Yukol (; ; born 29 November 1942), or usually known by his nickname Mui (), is a Thai film director, screenwriter film producer and National Artist Performing Arts branch (Movie and TV Drama director) in 2001. A member of ...
.Jirattikorn The film portrays the events leading up to the war and the battles including the death of Queen Sri Suriyothai. The film cost an estimated 350 million baht, and is the highest budget Thai film . The film was released in the United States in 2003. The succession crisis Ayutthaya is portrayed in the 2005 English language Thai film '' The King Maker''. The film ends prior to the Burmese invasion.


See also

*
Ayutthaya Kingdom The Ayutthaya Kingdom or the Empire of Ayutthaya was a Thai people, Thai kingdom that existed in Southeast Asia from 1351 to 1767, centered around the city of Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya (city), Ayutthaya, in Siam, or present-day Thailand. Europe ...
*
Toungoo dynasty ''taungnguumainn saat'' , conventional_long_name = Toungoo dynasty , common_name = Taungoo dynasty , status = Empire/Monarchy, Kingdom , event_start = Independence from Kingdom of Ava, Ava Kingdom , yea ...
*
Early Modern warfare Early modern warfare is the era of warfare during early modern period following medieval warfare. It is associated with the start of the widespread use of gunpowder and the development of suitable weapons to use the explosive, including art ...
*
Phraya The Thai nobility was a social class comprising titled officials (''khunnang'', ) in the service of Thai monarchy, the monarchy. They formed part of a hierarchical social system which developed from the time of the Ayutthaya Kingdom (14th century ...
(Thai nobility)


Notes


References


Bibliography

* * * * * * * * * * * {{DEFAULTSORT:Burmese-Siamese War (1548) Burmese–Siamese wars Wars involving the Ayutthaya Kingdom Conflicts in 1547 Conflicts in 1548 Conflicts in 1549 1547 in Asia 1548 in Asia 1549 in Asia First Toungoo Empire 16th century in the Ayutthaya Kingdom