Bachman's Warbler
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Bachman's warbler (''Vermivora bachmanii'') is a possibly
extinct Extinction is the termination of an organism by the death of its Endling, last member. A taxon may become Functional extinction, functionally extinct before the death of its last member if it loses the capacity to Reproduction, reproduce and ...
passerine A passerine () is any bird of the order Passeriformes (; from Latin 'sparrow' and '-shaped') which includes more than half of all bird species. Sometimes known as perching birds, passerines generally have an anisodactyl arrangement of their ...
migratory
bird Birds are a group of warm-blooded vertebrates constituting the class (biology), class Aves (), characterised by feathers, toothless beaked jaws, the Oviparity, laying of Eggshell, hard-shelled eggs, a high Metabolism, metabolic rate, a fou ...
. This
warbler Various Passeriformes (perching birds) are commonly referred to as warblers. They are not necessarily closely related to one another, but share some characteristics, such as being fairly small, vocal, and insectivorous. Sylvioid warblers T ...
was a migrant, breeding in swampy
blackberry BlackBerry is a discontinued brand of handheld devices and related mobile services, originally developed and maintained by the Canadian company Research In Motion (RIM, later known as BlackBerry Limited) until 2016. The first BlackBerry device ...
and cane thickets of the Southeastern and
Midwestern United States The Midwestern United States (also referred to as the Midwest, the Heartland or the American Midwest) is one of the four census regions defined by the United States Census Bureau. It occupies the northern central part of the United States. It ...
and wintering in
Cuba Cuba, officially the Republic of Cuba, is an island country, comprising the island of Cuba (largest island), Isla de la Juventud, and List of islands of Cuba, 4,195 islands, islets and cays surrounding the main island. It is located where the ...
. There are some reports of the bird from the twenty-first century, but none are widely accepted. Some authorities accept a Louisiana sighting in August 1988 as confirmed, but the last uncontroversial sightings date to the 1960s.


Taxonomy

This bird was first recorded in 1832 by the Reverend
John Bachman John Bachman ( ; February 4, 1790 – February 24, 1874) was an American Lutheran minister, social activist and naturalist who collaborated with John James Audubon to produce ''Viviparous Quadrupeds of North America'' and whose writings, part ...
, who found the species near Charleston, South Carolina, and presented study skins and descriptions to his friend and collaborator,
John James Audubon John James Audubon (born Jean-Jacques Rabin, April 26, 1785 – January 27, 1851) was a French-American Autodidacticism, self-trained artist, natural history, naturalist, and ornithology, ornithologist. His combined interests in art and ornitho ...
. Audubon never saw the bird alive but named it in honor of Bachman in 1833. An alternate common name of the species used by some 19th-century authors, paralleling similar names given to other species once placed in the genus ''Helinaia'', is Bachman's swamp warbler. The blue-winged and rapidly declining
golden-winged warbler The golden-winged warbler (''Vermivora chrysoptera'') is a New World warbler. It breeds in southeastern and south-central Canada and in the Appalachian Mountains in the northeastern to north-central United States. The majority (~70%) of the globa ...
s, also members of the genus ''
Vermivora ''Vermivora'' is a genus of New World warblers. Species Three species are accepted in the genus,IOC World Bird LisFamily Parulidae one of these species may be extinct: Several additional species were formerly included in ''Vermivora ...
'', are thought to be this warbler's closest relatives. There are no known subspecies.


Description

Bachman's warbler is a
sexually dimorphic Sexual dimorphism is the condition where sexes of the same species exhibit different Morphology (biology), morphological characteristics, including characteristics not directly involved in reproduction. The condition occurs in most dioecy, di ...
species and the adults have two distinct plumages, one in the spring and one in the fall. In the spring, adult males have a yellow forehead and
supercilium The supercilium is a plumage feature found on the heads of some bird species. It is a stripe which runs from the base of the bird's beak above its eye, finishing somewhere towards the rear of the bird's head.Dunn and Alderfer (2006), p. 10 Also k ...
. The area below the bird's eye is yellow, while the lores are a dusky olive. The bird's forecrown is black with gray at the edges, while the rear crown and nape are olive-gray. The rest of the warbler's upperparts are an olive green, with the rump being the brightest. The chin and upper throat are yellow, while the center throat and upper chest are black. The belly is yellow, and the undertail coverts are white. Males in their first spring are nearly identical to the adult male, but have less black on their crown and chest. During the spring, adult females are a light yellow in their forehead and supraloral, blending into a gray crown and nape. Its lores are a gray-olive and it has a white eye ring. The rest of the female's upperparts are an olive-green, which like the male is brightest on the rump. The chin and throat are also a light yellow, while the sides of the neck and the upper breast are gray. Older females have a few black upper breast feathers. The rest of the breast and the belly is light yellow, blending into white on the undertail coverts. The flanks are also washed with gray. First spring females resemble the adult female, but appear duller. Bachman's warbler molts over the summer into its fall plumage. For adult males, the fall plumage is nearly identical to the spring, with the only difference being that the forecrown changes from black to gray. First year males also resemble their spring plumage, but have an olive forecrown and duller yellow underparts. Adult females possess the same plumage, although it looks fresher in the fall, while first year females have an olive-yellow forehead and a dull eyering. Hatchlings obtain their first plumage in May and undergo their first molt in June. Juvenile Bachman's warblers have a dusky brown head and upperparts and are a paler brown below, which transitions to dull white on the lower body and undertail. This warbler is in length. It is relatively small for a warbler and has a short tail. It is unique amongst warblers for its thin and decurved bill. The Bachman's warbler's bill is blackish brown in adults and brown in the juveniles. The legs are a grayish-brown, while the eyes are dark brown.


Voice

Documented examples of the species' songs are composed of a rapid series of six to twenty-five buzz notes, sometimes ending in a sharp, slurred ''zip'' note. The song is similar to that of the
northern parula The northern parula (''Setophaga americana'') is a small New World warbler. It is migratory and breeds in eastern North America from southern Canada to Florida. Taxonomy The northern parula was Species description, formally described in 1758 by ...
, but distinguishable in that it was noticeably monotone. Multiple call notes have been recorded, ranging from a soft ''tsip'' to a low, hissing ''zee-e-eep''.


Distribution and habitat

Bachman's warbler bred primarily in two distinct regions, namely the southern Atlantic coastal plain and the Gulf Coast states north along the
Mississippi River The Mississippi River is the main stem, primary river of the largest drainage basin in the United States. It is the second-longest river in the United States, behind only the Missouri River, Missouri. From its traditional source of Lake Ita ...
watershed to Kentucky. In the southern Atlantic coastal plain, the bird bred in
South Carolina South Carolina ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Southeastern United States, Southeastern region of the United States. It borders North Carolina to the north and northeast, the Atlantic Ocean to the southeast, and Georgia (U.S. state), Georg ...
near Charleston, though it is believed to have once bred as far north as
Virginia Virginia, officially the Commonwealth of Virginia, is a U.S. state, state in the Southeastern United States, Southeastern and Mid-Atlantic (United States), Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States between the East Coast of the United States ...
and south into
Georgia Georgia most commonly refers to: * Georgia (country), a country in the South Caucasus * Georgia (U.S. state), a state in the southeastern United States Georgia may also refer to: People and fictional characters * Georgia (name), a list of pe ...
. The Gulf Coast breeding habitat is located primarily in central
Alabama Alabama ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Southeastern United States, Southeastern and Deep South, Deep Southern regions of the United States. It borders Tennessee to the north, Georgia (U.S. state), Georgia to the east, Florida and the Gu ...
, though reports from northern
Mississippi Mississippi ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Southeastern United States, Southeastern and Deep South regions of the United States. It borders Tennessee to the north, Alabama to the east, the Gulf of Mexico to the south, Louisiana to the s ...
and
Louisiana Louisiana ( ; ; ) is a state in the Deep South and South Central regions of the United States. It borders Texas to the west, Arkansas to the north, and Mississippi to the east. Of the 50 U.S. states, it ranks 31st in area and 25 ...
are known. It bred north of Alabama along
Arkansas Arkansas ( ) is a landlocked state in the West South Central region of the Southern United States. It borders Missouri to the north, Tennessee and Mississippi to the east, Louisiana to the south, Texas to the southwest, and Oklahoma ...
's and
Missouri Missouri (''see #Etymology and pronunciation, pronunciation'') is a U.S. state, state in the Midwestern United States, Midwestern region of the United States. Ranking List of U.S. states and territories by area, 21st in land area, it border ...
's
St. Francis River The St. Francis River is a tributary of the Mississippi River, about long, in southeastern Missouri and northeastern Arkansas in the United States. The river drains a mostly rural area and forms part of the Missouri-Arkansas state line along th ...
. Unaccepted records of breeding in eastern
Texas Texas ( , ; or ) is the most populous U.S. state, state in the South Central United States, South Central region of the United States. It borders Louisiana to the east, Arkansas to the northeast, Oklahoma to the north, New Mexico to the we ...
,
Oklahoma Oklahoma ( ; Choctaw language, Choctaw: , ) is a landlocked U.S. state, state in the South Central United States, South Central region of the United States. It borders Texas to the south and west, Kansas to the north, Missouri to the northea ...
, and
Tennessee Tennessee (, ), officially the State of Tennessee, is a landlocked U.S. state, state in the Southeastern United States, Southeastern region of the United States. It borders Kentucky to the north, Virginia to the northeast, North Carolina t ...
are known. During migration, the species was primarily recorded in
Florida Florida ( ; ) is a U.S. state, state in the Southeastern United States, Southeastern region of the United States. It borders the Gulf of Mexico to the west, Alabama to the northwest, Georgia (U.S. state), Georgia to the north, the Atlantic ...
and the
Florida Keys The Florida Keys are a coral island, coral cay archipelago off the southern coast of Florida, forming the southernmost part of the continental United States. They begin at the southeastern coast of the Florida peninsula, about south of Miami a ...
, although a few birds migrated along the eastern Gulf Coast. Additionally, there is one spring migration record from the
Bahamas The Bahamas, officially the Commonwealth of The Bahamas, is an archipelagic and island country within the Lucayan Archipelago of the Atlantic Ocean. It contains 97 per cent of the archipelago's land area and 88 per cent of its population. ...
in 1901. The species primarily winters in Cuba. Additionally, it was recorded wintering on
Isla de la Juventud Isla de la Juventud (; ) is the second-largest Cuban island (after Cuba's mainland) and the seventh-largest island in the West Indies (after mainland Cuba itself, Hispaniola, Jamaica, Puerto Rico, Trinidad, and Andros Island). The island was ...
, and one wintering record is known from Florida. Unconfirmed reports of the species wintering in Georgia's
Okefenokee Swamp The Okefenokee Swamp is a shallow, 438,000-acre (177,000 ha), peat-filled wetland straddling the Georgia (U.S. state), Georgia–Florida line in the United States. A majority of the swamp is protected by the Okefenokee National Wildlife Ref ...
exist. Bachman's warbler bred in timbered bottomland swamps with pools of still water. These swampy forests are mainly composed of
deciduous In the fields of horticulture and botany, the term deciduous () means "falling off at maturity" and "tending to fall off", in reference to trees and shrubs that seasonally shed Leaf, leaves, usually in the autumn; to the shedding of petals, aft ...
trees such as
cypress Cypress is a common name for various coniferous trees or shrubs from the ''Cupressus'' genus of the '' Cupressaceae'' family, typically found in temperate climates and subtropical regions of Asia, Europe, and North America. The word ''cypress'' ...
,
sweet gum ''Liquidambar'', commonly called sweetgum (star gum in the UK), gum, redgum, satin-walnut, styrax or American storax, is the only genus in the flowering plant family Altingiaceae and has 15 species. They were formerly often treated as a part of ...
,
dogwood ''Cornus'' is a genus of about 30–60 species of woody plants in the family Cornaceae, commonly known as dogwoods or cornels, which can generally be distinguished by their blossoms, berries, and distinctive bark. Most are deciduous ...
,
red oak ''Quercus'' subgenus ''Quercus'' is one of the two subgenera into which the genus ''Quercus'' was divided in a 2017 classification (the other being subgenus ''Cerris''). It contains about 190 species divided among five sections. It may be calle ...
,
hickory Hickory is a common name for trees composing the genus ''Carya'', which includes 19 species accepted by ''Plants of the World Online''. Seven species are native to southeast Asia in China, Indochina, and northeastern India (Assam), and twelve ...
,
black gum Black gum may refer to several species of plants: * ''Nyssa sylvatica ''Nyssa sylvatica'', commonly known as tupelo, black tupelo, black gum or sour gum, is a medium-sized deciduous tree native to eastern North America from the coastal Northeas ...
, and
tupelo Tupelo commonly refers to: * Tupelo (tree), a small genus of deciduous trees with alternate, simple leaves * Tupelo, Mississippi, the county seat and the largest city of Lee County, Mississippi Tupelo may also refer to: Places * Tupelo, Arka ...
. While it is not definitively known what
microhabitat In ecology, habitat refers to the array of resources, biotic factors that are present in an area, such as to support the survival and reproduction of a particular species. A species' habitat can be seen as the physical manifestation of its ...
in these swamps Bachman's warblers preferred, it is believed that they preferred small edges created by fire or storms with a dense understory of the cane species ''
Arundinaria gigantea ''Arundinaria gigantea'' is a species of bamboo known as giant cane (not to be confused with ''Arundo donax''), river cane, and giant river cane. It is endemism, endemic to the South Central United States, south-central and southeastern United St ...
'' and palmettos. Some believe that this species may have been a cane specialist. While migrating, the species preferred bottomland forests, though it was reported in scrubby habitats as well. During the Cuban winter it may have broadened its habitat to include most forests, ranging from dry, semideciduous forests to urban parks to swamps. ''
Hibiscus ''Hibiscus'' is a genus of flowering plants in the Malva, mallow family, Malvaceae. The genus is quite large, comprising List of Hibiscus species, several hundred species that are Native plant, native to warm temperate, Subtropics, subtropical ...
'' forests may be important to wintering warblers.


Ecology and behavior

Due to the rarity of this species, little is known of its behavior. This species does not frequently pump its tail. When alarmed, a Bachman's warbler will jerk its tail and raise its crown feathers. This species does not frequently sing while migrating. Once it reaches its breeding grounds, this warbler prefers to sing from high perches. The female warbler incubates the eggs while the male looks for food. This species's foraging niche is quite low in elevation, frequently between . However, during migration it has also been observed foraging in the tops of trees. This warbler could feed while hanging upside down to probe the bottoms of leaves. Bachman's warbler also feeds by gleaning and probing into leaf clusters. This latter foraging strategy has led some to hypothesize that this warbler specializes in foraging among dead leaves in
canebrakes A canebrake or canebreak is a thicket of any of a variety of ''Arundinaria'' grasses: '' A. gigantea'', '' A. tecta'' and '' A. appalachiana''. As a bamboo, these giant grasses grow in thickets up to tall. ''A. gigantea'' is generally found in s ...
. Its primary prey includes caterpillars, spiders, and other arthropods. It may feed on nectar in Cuba, but this hypothesis is unproven. It may be a colonial breeder. The nests are deep and bulky. Dead leaves, mosses, grasses, and weed stalks compose the exterior of the nest, while the interior cup was lined with fine fibers from ''
Ramalina ''Ramalina'' is a genus of greenish fruticose lichens that grow in the form of flattened, strap-like branches. Members of the genus are commonly called strap lichensField Guide to California Lichens, Stephen Sharnoff, Yale University Press, 201 ...
'' lichen and
Spanish moss Spanish moss (''Tillandsia usneoides'') is an Epiphyte, epiphytic flowering plant that often grows upon large trees in tropical and subtropical climates. It is native to much of Mexico, Bermuda, the Bahamas, Central America, South America (as far ...
. These nests are made amongst blackberry brambles, cane stalks, and palmettos in bottomland forests above the ground or, frequently, pools of water. Unusually for a warbler, its eggs are pure white with occasional fine marks at the large end.


Migration

Bachman's warblers migrate quite early in comparison with other New World warblers. Spring migration begins in late February and birds appear in south Florida and southeastern Louisiana by the first week of March. Peak migration in south Florida is during the first three weeks of March and along the northwestern Florida coast during the third and fourth week of March. The latest recorded Bachman's warbler in Florida was noted on April 9. These warblers reach their South Carolina breeding grounds around mid-March, though some are known to arrive in late February. Birds migrating to southeastern Missouri arrive between mid and late April. Some birds overshoot their breeding grounds and are found in Virginia and North Carolina. In South Carolina, all Bachman's warblers leave their breeding ground by July 19. The peak of fall migration is poorly documented, but the earliest date for a migrant in southern Mississippi is July 4, while the first migrants at
Key West Key West is an island in the Straits of Florida, at the southern end of the U.S. state of Florida. Together with all or parts of the separate islands of Dredgers Key, Fleming Key, Sunset Key, and the northern part of Stock Island, it con ...
were reported on July 17. All migration is between the end of July and August 25, with the last reported migrating individual being a September 24 bird in coastal Georgia.


Conservation

Bachman's warbler was originally collected by John Bachman in South Carolina in 1832 and described by Audubon in 1833 from skins mailed by Bachman. It remained largely unknown until the mid-1880s. It is believed that selective logging in the 1800s briefly benefited the species by providing more habitat. It was frequently seen in its breeding habitat from the mid-1880s to 1910. However, when clear-cutting began replacing selective logging, sightings of this species grew scarce. By the 1930s, sightings were rare, and in 1940 the last definite winter sighting was recorded. The last male specimen was collected on March 21, 1941, on Deer Island, Mississippi, while the last female specimen was collected on February 28, 1940, on
Ship Island, Mississippi Ship Island is a barrier island off the Gulf Coast of Mississippi, one of the Mississippi–Alabama barrier islands. Hurricane Camille split the island into two separate islands (West Ship Island and East Ship Island) in 1969. In early 2019, ...
. Reports of birds from the Missouri and Arkansas breeding grounds lasted through the 1940s, while birds were reported breeding in South Carolina's I'on Swamp until 1953. Individuals were reported from
Fairfax County, Virginia Fairfax County, officially the County of Fairfax, is a County (United States), county in the Commonwealth (U.S. state), Commonwealth of Virginia. With a population of 1,150,309 as of the 2020 United States census, 2020 census, it is the most p ...
, in 1954 and 1958, and a male was seen singing near I'on Swamp in April 1962. On March 30, 1977, an immature female was seen in
Brevard County, Florida Brevard County ( ) is a county in the U.S. state of Florida. It is on the Atlantic coast of eastern Central Florida. As of the 2020 census, the population was 606,612, making it the 10th-most populated county in Florida. The official county s ...
. The last confirmed observation was in Louisiana in 1988. Reliable reports of sightings of the species from
Congaree National Park Congaree National Park is a national park of the United States in central South Carolina, 18 miles southeast of the state capital, Columbia. The park preserves the largest tract of old growth bottomland hardwood forest left in the United Sta ...
in the early 2000s prompted a formal investigation, but were eventually attributed to misidentifications of
hooded warbler The hooded warbler (''Setophaga citrina'') is a New World warbler. It breeds in eastern North America across the eastern United States and into southernmost Canada (Ontario). It is migratory, wintering in Central America and the West Indies. Ho ...
sightings and
northern parula The northern parula (''Setophaga americana'') is a small New World warbler. It is migratory and breeds in eastern North America from southern Canada to Florida. Taxonomy The northern parula was Species description, formally described in 1758 by ...
songs. A thorough and systematic search using playback of recorded Bachman's warbler songs did not reveal any territorial males and did not provoke any aggressive response from other bird species, and the survey leaders concluded the species was not present in the park during their search. The main factor contributing to the species' decline was
habitat destruction Habitat destruction (also termed habitat loss or habitat reduction) occurs when a natural habitat is no longer able to support its native species. The organisms once living there have either moved elsewhere, or are dead, leading to a decrease ...
. It is thought to have nested in
canebrakes A canebrake or canebreak is a thicket of any of a variety of ''Arundinaria'' grasses: '' A. gigantea'', '' A. tecta'' and '' A. appalachiana''. As a bamboo, these giant grasses grow in thickets up to tall. ''A. gigantea'' is generally found in s ...
, the loss of which threatened the species' survival, as did the loss of wintering habitat in the Caribbean and
plume hunting Plume hunting is the hunting of wild birds to harvest their feathers, especially the more decorative plumes which were sold for use as ornamentation, particularly in hat-making (millinery). The movement against the plume trade in the United K ...
. Small-scale logging in the 1800s may actually have increased the Bachman warbler's breeding habitat. Clearcutting of its habitat and the draining of swamps via water channels are the two main causes of its habitat destruction. While it is unknown whether habitat change in its wintering grounds of Cuba affected the species, it is believed that a winter hurricane in 1932 could have dealt the species a crippling blow, making them too rare to find each other and mate on their breeding grounds. The United States Fish and Wildlife Service proposed on Sept. 29, 2021 to declare the species extinct following a lack of evidence of its survival; the species was delisted and declared extinct in October 2023 in accordance with the
Endangered Species Act The Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA; 16 U.S.C. § 1531 et seq.) is the primary law in the United States for protecting and conserving imperiled species. Designed to protect critically imperiled species from extinction as a "consequence of e ...
.


In culture

John James Audubon John James Audubon (born Jean-Jacques Rabin, April 26, 1785 – January 27, 1851) was a French-American Autodidacticism, self-trained artist, natural history, naturalist, and ornithology, ornithologist. His combined interests in art and ornitho ...
's
folio The term "folio" () has three interconnected but distinct meanings in the world of books and printing: first, it is a term for a common method of arranging Paper size, sheets of paper into book form, folding the sheet only once, and a term for ...
renderings of a male and female Bachman's warbler were painted on top of an illustration of the ''
Franklinia ''Franklinia'' is a monotypic genus in the tea family, Theaceae. The sole species in this genus is a flowering tree, ''Franklinia alatamaha'', commonly called Franklinias or the Franklin tree, and native to the Altamaha River valley in Georgia i ...
'' tree first painted by
Maria Martin Maria (/mɝˈaɪə/ mah-RYE-uh) Martin Bachman (3 July 1796 – 27 December 1863) of Charleston, South Carolina, was an American watercolor Painting, painter and Technical illustration, scientific illustrator. She contributed many of the b ...
, John Bachman's sister-in-law and one of the country's first female natural history illustrators. In the comic strip ''
Doonesbury ''Doonesbury'' is a comic strip by American cartoonist Garry Trudeau that chronicles the adventures and lives of an array of characters of various ages, professions, and backgrounds, from the President of the United States to the title character, ...
'', Dick Davenport, a
bird watcher Birdwatching, or birding, is the observing of birds, either as a recreational activity or as a form of citizen science. A birdwatcher may observe by using their naked eye, by using a visual enhancement device such as binoculars or a telescope, ...
, died in 1986 of a massive coronary while observing and photographing this species, therefore proving its continued existence. This death scene has been noted as a particularly memorable one in the history of comics.


References


Further reading

*
Bachman's Warbler: A Species in Peril
', second edition, by Paul B. Hamel. Full text online.


External links



* ttps://macaulaylibrary.org/audio/10716 Recording of a singing Bachman's warbler, from Cornell's Macaulay Library {{Authority control
Bachman's warbler Bachman's warbler (''Vermivora bachmanii'') is a possibly Extinction, extinct passerine migratory bird. This New World warbler, warbler was a bird migration, migrant, breeding in swampy blackberry and Canebrake, cane thickets of the Southeastern ...
New World warblers Native birds of the Southeastern United States Birds of Cuba
Bachman's warbler Bachman's warbler (''Vermivora bachmanii'') is a possibly Extinction, extinct passerine migratory bird. This New World warbler, warbler was a bird migration, migrant, breeding in swampy blackberry and Canebrake, cane thickets of the Southeastern ...
ESA endangered species
Bachman's warbler Bachman's warbler (''Vermivora bachmanii'') is a possibly Extinction, extinct passerine migratory bird. This New World warbler, warbler was a bird migration, migrant, breeding in swampy blackberry and Canebrake, cane thickets of the Southeastern ...