Arjuna's Penance
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''Descent of the Ganges'', known locally as ''Arjuna's Penance'', is a monument at
Mamallapuram Mamallapuram (also known as Mahabalipuram), is a town in Chengalpattu district in the southeastern Indian state of Tamil Nadu, best known for the UNESCO World Heritage Site of 7th- and 8th-century Hindu Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram. It ...
, on the
Coromandel Coast The Coromandel Coast is a coastal region along the southeastern front of the Indian peninsula. Its delimitations are numerous, but generally admitted to be bounded by the Krishna River, Krishna river River mouth, mouth to the north, the Bay of B ...
of the
Bay of Bengal The Bay of Bengal is the northeastern part of the Indian Ocean. Geographically it is positioned between the Indian subcontinent and the Mainland Southeast Asia, Indochinese peninsula, located below the Bengal region. Many South Asian and Southe ...
, in the
Chengalpattu district Chengalpattu District is one of the 38 List of districts of Tamil Nadu, districts of Tamil Nadu, in India. The district headquarters is located at Chengalpattu. Chengalpattu district came into existence on 29 November 2019 when it was carved out ...
of the state of
Tamil Nadu Tamil Nadu (; , TN) is the southernmost States and union territories of India, state of India. The List of states and union territories of India by area, tenth largest Indian state by area and the List of states and union territories of Indi ...
,
India India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area; the List of countries by population (United Nations), most populous country since ...
. Measuring , it is a giant open-air
rock relief A rock relief or rock-cut relief is a relief, relief sculpture carved on solid or "living rock" such as a cliff, rather than a detached piece of stone. They are a category of rock art, and sometimes found as part of, or in conjunction ...
carved on two
monolith A monolith is a geological feature consisting of a single massive stone or rock, such as some mountains. Erosion usually exposes the geological formations, which are often made of very hard and solid igneous or metamorphic rock. Some monolit ...
ic rock boulders. The legend depicted in the
relief Relief is a sculpture, sculptural method in which the sculpted pieces remain attached to a solid background of the same material. The term ''wikt:relief, relief'' is from the Latin verb , to raise (). To create a sculpture in relief is to give ...
is the story of the descent of the sacred river
Ganges The Ganges ( ; in India: Ganga, ; in Bangladesh: Padma, ). "The Ganges Basin, known in India as the Ganga and in Bangladesh as the Padma, is an international which goes through India, Bangladesh, Nepal and China." is a trans-boundary rive ...
to earth from the heavens led by
Bhagiratha Bhagiratha (, ) is a legendary king of the Ikshvaku dynasty in Hindu Literature, Hindu literature. He is best known for his legend of bringing the sacred river Ganges, personified as the Hinduism, Hindu river goddess Ganges in Hinduism, Ganga, f ...
. The waters of the Ganges are believed to possess supernatural powers. The descent of the Ganges and
Arjuna Arjuna (, , Help:IPA/Sanskrit, ɾd͡ʒun̪ə is one of the central characters of the ancient Hindu epic ''Mahabharata''. He is the third of the five Pandava brothers, and is widely regarded as the most important and renowned among them. ...
's Penance are portrayed in stone at the Pallava heritage site. The relief is more of a canvas of Indian rock cut sculpture at its best not seen anywhere else in India. It is one of the Group of Monuments at Mamallapuram that was designated as a
UNESCO The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO ) is a List of specialized agencies of the United Nations, specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) with the aim of promoting world peace and International secur ...
World Heritage Site World Heritage Sites are landmarks and areas with legal protection under an treaty, international treaty administered by UNESCO for having cultural, historical, or scientific significance. The sites are judged to contain "cultural and natural ...
since 1984.


Geography

The Arjuna relief is in the centre of Mahabalipuram, facing the sea at a short distance from the shores of the Coromandel Coast of the Bay of Bengal where the
Shore Temple The Shore Temple (c. 725 AD) is a complex of temples and shrines that overlooks the shore of the Bay of Bengal. It is located in Mahabalipuram, about south of Chennai in Tamil Nadu, India. It is a structural temple, built with blocks of gran ...
is situated. It is accessible from
Chennai Chennai, also known as Madras (List of renamed places in India#Tamil Nadu, its official name until 1996), is the capital city, capital and List of cities in Tamil Nadu by population, largest city of Tamil Nadu, the southernmost states and ...
city over a paved road to its west and from Chengalpet.


History

The relief was created to celebrate the victory of
Narasimhavarman I Narasimhavarman I was a Pallava emperor who reigned from 630 CE to 668 CE. He shared his father Mahendravarman I's love of art and completed the works started by Mahendravarman in Mamallapuram. During his reign, the famous Pancha Rathas ...
over the Chalukya Emperor
Pulakesin II Pulakeshin II (IAST: Pulakeśin r. –642 CE) popularly known as Immaḍi Pulakeśi, was the greatest Chalukyan Emperor who reigned from Vatapi (present-day Badami in Karnataka, India). During his reign, the Chalukya empire expanded to cover ...
. The place, now known as
Mamallapuram Mamallapuram (also known as Mahabalipuram), is a town in Chengalpattu district in the southeastern Indian state of Tamil Nadu, best known for the UNESCO World Heritage Site of 7th- and 8th-century Hindu Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram. It ...
, was named in honor of the
Pallava The Pallava dynasty existed from 275 CE to 897 CE, ruling a significant portion of South India, the Deccan, also known as Tondaimandalam. The Pallavas played a crucial role in shaping in particular southern Indian history and heritage. The ...
monarch Narasimhavarman I (630–668 CE),) who was conferred the title ''Mamallan'', the "great wrestler" or "great warrior". He was the son of King
Mahendravarman I Mahendravarman I (600–630 CE) was a Pallava emperor who ruled over realm covering the southern portions of present-day Andhra region and northern regions of what forms present-day Tamil Nadu in India, in the early 7th century. He was a schol ...
. The architectural creations at Mamallapuram, mostly attributed to Mamallan in the 7th century, adopted stone as the medium for sculpting ''in situ'' rock faces, which until this was done with some perishable material like wood or loose stones. It is part of 25 UNESCO World Heritage Cultural Sites in India,India – UNESCO World Heritage Centre
/ref> and as a protected monument, the
Archaeological Survey of India The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) is an Indian government agency that is responsible for archaeological research and the conservation and preservation of cultural historical monuments in the country. It was founded in 1861 by Alexander ...
(ASI), Chennai Circle is entrusted with its upkeep in all aspects. The open air reliefs (including the Descent of the Ganges (Mamallapuram) are one of the four categories under which UNESCO identified the site as a World Heritage Site and inscribed it in 1984 under the title
Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram The Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram is a collection of 7th- and 8th-century CE religious monuments in the coastal resort town of Mahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu, India and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It is on the Coromandel Coast of the Bay o ...
. This relief in rock is reported as a "sublime" early sculpture of the 7th century; even in the subsequent reign of the Imperial Cholas, they adopted the shrine-sculpting technique in the temples they built in the late 9th century. This architectural legacy of the
Pallavas The Pallava dynasty existed from 275 CE to 897 CE, ruling a significant portion of the Deccan, also known as Tondaimandalam. The Pallavas played a crucial role in shaping in particular southern Indian history and heritage. The dynasty ros ...
is continued by the descendants of sculptors of that period, who are now integrated into the present town's culture.


Layout

The relief faces east. It was created on two large boulders of pink
granite Granite ( ) is a coarse-grained (phanerite, phaneritic) intrusive rock, intrusive igneous rock composed mostly of quartz, alkali feldspar, and plagioclase. It forms from magma with a high content of silica and alkali metal oxides that slowly coo ...
in the open air giving the whole a natural effect. The boulders measure . Many of the figures carved are life size. The natural cleft, a very large perpendicular fissure, is skillfully sculptured. It is between the two boulders and is integral to the mythical narratives carved on the entire relief. A water tank was once located at the top of the rock to release water denoting the
Ganges River The Ganges ( ; in India: Ganga, ; in Bangladesh: Padma, ). "The Ganges Basin, known in India as the Ganga and in Bangladesh as the Padma, is an international which goes through India, Bangladesh, Nepal and China." is a trans-boundary rive ...
. It cascaded over the cleft and the relief to give the impression of the Ganga descending from the head tied dreads of
Shiva Shiva (; , ), also known as Mahadeva (; , , Help:IPA/Sanskrit, ɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐh and Hara, is one of the Hindu deities, principal deities of Hinduism. He is the God in Hinduism, Supreme Being in Shaivism, one of the major traditions w ...
. This scene was created during festive occasions and the presence of a brick masonry cistern at the top of the cleft to release water attests to its location at the site. The relief is an ensemble of over a hundred figures (146 is also mentioned) of gods, people, half-humans and animals.


Subject

The sculptures carved in the natural fissure that divides the cliff not only depict the cosmic event of
Ganges The Ganges ( ; in India: Ganga, ; in Bangladesh: Padma, ). "The Ganges Basin, known in India as the Ganga and in Bangladesh as the Padma, is an international which goes through India, Bangladesh, Nepal and China." is a trans-boundary rive ...
descending to Earth but also show the event being watched by many gods, goddesses, figurines such as
Kinnara A kinnara (Sanskrit: Kiṃnara) is a creature from Hindu and Buddhist mythology. They are described as part human and part bird, and have a strong association with music and love. Believed to come from the Himalayas, they often watch ove ...
,
Gandharva A ''gandharva'' () is a member of a class of celestial beings in Indian religions, such as Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, whose males are divine performers such as musicians and singers, and the females are divine dancers. In Hinduism, they ...
,
Apsara Apsaras (, , Khmer language, Khmer: អប្សរា are a class of celestial beings in Hinduism, Hindu and Culture of Buddhism, Buddhist culture. They were originally a type of female spirit of the clouds and waters, but, later play ...
,
Gana The word ( ) in Sanskrit and Pali means "flock, troop, multitude, number, tribe, category, series, or class". It can also be used to refer to a "body of attendants" and can refer to "a company, any assemblage or association of men formed for t ...
, Nagas, and also wild and domestic animals. The total number of carvings are probably about 146. The carvings of elephants are almost life size. Another humorous scene is the carvings of monkeys copying the yogic scenes of the sages. Shiva is shown next to the ''
Kinnaras A kinnara (Sanskrit: Kiṃnara) is a creature from Hindu mythology, Hindu and Buddhist mythology. They are described as part human and part bird, and have a strong association with music and love. Believed to come from the Himalayas, they ...
'' who are depicted in large numbers in the upper portion of the relief; they are
anthropomorphic Anthropomorphism is the attribution of human traits, emotions, or intentions to non-human entities. It is considered to be an innate tendency of human psychology. Personification is the related attribution of human form and characteristics to ...
forms of half-human half-bird, a popular Indian art form in ancient times representing the Indic ethos of the
world The world is the totality of entities, the whole of reality, or everything that Existence, exists. The nature of the world has been conceptualized differently in different fields. Some conceptions see the world as unique, while others talk ...
as one creation. The male Kinnara is holding a musical instrument (
Alapini vina The ''ālāpiṇī vīṇā'' was a medieval stick-zither veena in India, with a single string and a gourd resonator. Later forms added more strings. The instruments became prominent in Indian music after 500 C.E. as instruments of court music. ...
) while the female Kinnara is holding a
cymbal A cymbal is a common percussion instrument. Often used in pairs, cymbals consist of thin, normally round plates of various alloys. The majority of cymbals are of indefinite pitch, although small disc-shaped cymbals based on ancient designs sou ...
. Shiva is carved in front of the river (to the right of the cleft) in a standing posture with
Bhagiratha Bhagiratha (, ) is a legendary king of the Ikshvaku dynasty in Hindu Literature, Hindu literature. He is best known for his legend of bringing the sacred river Ganges, personified as the Hinduism, Hindu river goddess Ganges in Hinduism, Ganga, f ...
, the sage, standing on one leg offering him prayers to check the force of the Ganga as she descends to earth. Shiva is also shown with a weapon which is interpreted as
Pashupati Paśupati (, ) is a form of the Hindu deity Śiva, in his benign aspect as the five-faced herdsman of all creatures. Paśupati is traditionally considered to be the guardian deity of Nepal, described in texts such as the ''Nepāla Māhātmya'' ...
, which he gave to Arjuna. The ''ganas'' shown in the carvings represent the people who have spent their entire lives in dedication to Shiva, and are blessed with the boon to remain close to Shiva for all time to come. Carvings of the divine nagas shown swimming in the river, as Ganga descends from the heavens, are also in anthropomorphic form of a serpent and human, which has been a traditional style from ancient times in Indic art. They are believed to denote fertility and protective forces of nature. They are seen not only in the middle of the panel facing the cleft, which represents the river, but also at the top of the panel at the entry of water over the channel, marking the prevalence of naga worship in Hindu religious beliefs. It is also said that the relief in one unity is the early Indic artist's concept of "sublime continuity in all living things". The elephants shown in reliefs are unique in the fact that the detailing includes the baby elephants behind the life-size elephants. Another interesting depiction is of a deer scratching its nose. The elephants represent a herd moving towards the river to drink water. The male elephant carving precedes that of its female partner. Three baby elephants with the male elephant and two babies with the female elephant are also carved in the panel.
Sun The Sun is the star at the centre of the Solar System. It is a massive, nearly perfect sphere of hot plasma, heated to incandescence by nuclear fusion reactions in its core, radiating the energy from its surface mainly as visible light a ...
, on the left and
Moon The Moon is Earth's only natural satellite. It Orbit of the Moon, orbits around Earth at Lunar distance, an average distance of (; about 30 times Earth diameter, Earth's diameter). The Moon rotation, rotates, with a rotation period (lunar ...
on the right side are also depicted on the top part of the panel. A ''kim-purusha,'' meaning a dwarf with elongated ears and wearing a cap on his head and beating a drum is also seen in the panel. In the upper part of the panel,
Himalayas The Himalayas, or Himalaya ( ), is a mountain range in Asia, separating the plains of the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau. The range has some of the Earth's highest peaks, including the highest, Mount Everest. More than list of h ...
are shown which corroborates the theory of the panel representing the descent of the Ganges. Wild lions are also shown with large mane and also rams which are interpreted as representing the Himalayan habitat. On the left side of the upper panel, carvings of divinities and celestial couples moving towards the river are seen. A few animals, lions and monkeys are also carved in this part. Two pairs of Kinnaras and three pairs of celestial couples are shown flying in the air approaching the river (cleft). Hunters and hunting scenes are part of this part of the panel; a hunter with a bow, two hunters hiding under trees to hunt, a lion about to attack two hunters are some of the parts of forest scenes carved on the panel. Another scene below is of a few monkeys, and a carving of a lion in his den with a few deer in front of it. Carvings of hunters carrying a pitcher and another carrying the hunted animals are also seen. Another prominent scene is that of a temple to the right of the cleft at the lower end of the panel. This temple is simple and small and has Vishnu as the deity carved within it. The temple roof is patterned on the style of Draupadi Ratha with a square curvilinear dome type of tower. However, the top is flat and is fitted with a ''stupi'', with a ''
kudu The kudus are two species of antelope of the genus '' Tragelaphus'': * Lesser kudu, ''Tragelaphus imberbis'', of eastern Africa * Greater kudu, ''Tragelaphus strepsiceros'', of eastern and southern Africa The two species look similar, th ...
'' in the centre. Corners are decorated with flower designs. The cornices are also seen with ''kudus'' carved with human faces inside. In the floor above the cornice, lion motifs are carved. A square supports the domed roof. A sage is seen sitting in front of the temple giving sermons to his students. In the seat below this scene, a lion in his den and below this a pair of deer are carved. A tortoise is shown next to the temple indicative of water in the near vicinity.


Interpretations

In one interpretation, a figure in the relief who is standing on one leg is said to be
Arjuna Arjuna (, , Help:IPA/Sanskrit, ɾd͡ʒun̪ə is one of the central characters of the ancient Hindu epic ''Mahabharata''. He is the third of the five Pandava brothers, and is widely regarded as the most important and renowned among them. ...
performing an austerity Tapas to receive a boon from
Shiva Shiva (; , ), also known as Mahadeva (; , , Help:IPA/Sanskrit, ɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐh and Hara, is one of the Hindu deities, principal deities of Hinduism. He is the God in Hinduism, Supreme Being in Shaivism, one of the major traditions w ...
as an aid in fighting the
Mahabharata war The Kurukshetra War (), also called the Mahabharata War, is a war described in the Hindu epic poem ''Mahabharata'', arising from a dynastic struggle between two groups of cousins, the Kauravas and the Pandavas, for the throne of Hastinapura. ...
. The story of the penance is narrated in the epic ''
Mahabharata The ''Mahābhārata'' ( ; , , ) is one of the two major Sanskrit Indian epic poetry, epics of ancient India revered as Smriti texts in Hinduism, the other being the ''Ramayana, Rāmāyaṇa''. It narrates the events and aftermath of the Kuru ...
'' under the subtitle the Kiratarjuniya. The boon, which Arjuna is said to have received, was called
Pasupata Pashupata Shaivism (, ) is one of the oldest major Shaivite Hindu schools. The mainstream which follows Vedic Pāśupata penance are 'Mahāpāśupata' and the schism of 'Lakula Pasupata' of Lakulisa. There is a debate about the origin of this s ...
, Shiva's most powerful weapon. In this event, ''asuras'' (demons) sent a boar to kill Arjuna. Then Shiva appeared on the scene to protect Arjuna assuming the form of ''
kirata The Kirāta () is a generic term in Sanskrit literature for people who had territory in the mountains, particularly in the Himalayas and Northeast India and who are believed to have been Sino-Tibetan in origin. ...
'' (hunter). Both Arjuna and Shiva shot arrows at the boar and the boar was killed; both claimed credit for slaying it and a fight ensued between the two in which Shiva won. He then revealed his true self to Arjuna and blessed him and gave him the weapon for which Arjuna is shown performing the penance. The relief is carved on two large boulders with a cleft. Above the cleft was a collecting pool, and at one time, water may have flowed along the cleft. Figures in the cleft in the rock are covered with nagas (serpent deities), in ''anjali'' posture. The river is said to represent
Ganga The Ganges ( ; in India: Ganga, ; in Bangladesh: Padma, ). "The Ganges Basin, known in India as the Ganga and in Bangladesh as the Padma, is an international which goes through India, Bangladesh, Nepal and China." is a trans-boundary riv ...
or the River Ganges emerging from Shiva's head. This provides the basis for an alternative interpretation of the mural. Rather than Arjuna, the figure performing austerities is said to be
Bhagiratha Bhagiratha (, ) is a legendary king of the Ikshvaku dynasty in Hindu Literature, Hindu literature. He is best known for his legend of bringing the sacred river Ganges, personified as the Hinduism, Hindu river goddess Ganges in Hinduism, Ganga, f ...
. Bhagiratha is said to have performed austerities so that Ganga might descend to earth and wash over the ashes of his relatives, releasing them from their sins. To break Ganga's fall from heaven to earth, she falls onto Shiva's hair, and is divided into many streams by his tresses; this miraculous event is shown in the form of sculptures on the boulders being watched by the animals and human beings. Another interpretation for the
yogi A yogi is a practitioner of Yoga, including a sannyasin or practitioner of meditation in Indian religions.A. K. Banerjea (2014), ''Philosophy of Gorakhnath with Goraksha-Vacana-Sangraha'', Motilal Banarsidass, , pp. xxiii, 297–299, 331 ...
doing penance on one leg is that it is a depiction of Bhagiratha doing severe penance to bring down the Ganges to earth to usher prosperity and happiness to the people. The nagas carved in the cleft represent fecundity and wealth. Shiva and other gods are shown blessing the saint. The scene is further accentuated with carvings of kings, sages, artists and animals. One more interpretation of the events seen in another part of the panel is that of a
cat The cat (''Felis catus''), also referred to as the domestic cat or house cat, is a small domesticated carnivorous mammal. It is the only domesticated species of the family Felidae. Advances in archaeology and genetics have shown that the ...
standing on one leg (apparently as an austerity), and perhaps an iconic figure in the relief. It is interpreted as relating to the
Panchatantra The ''Panchatantra'' ( IAST: Pañcatantra, ISO: Pañcatantra, , "Five Treatises") is an ancient Indian collection of interrelated animal fables in Sanskrit verse and prose, arranged within a frame story.
story of an ascetic. It denotes the hare luring a bird to come close so that she could she catch and devour it. The artist has brought out the expression on the cat's face, its motives clearly visible.


See also

*
Varaha Cave Temple *
Shore Temple The Shore Temple (c. 725 AD) is a complex of temples and shrines that overlooks the shore of the Bay of Bengal. It is located in Mahabalipuram, about south of Chennai in Tamil Nadu, India. It is a structural temple, built with blocks of gran ...
* Pancha Rathas *
Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram The Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram is a collection of 7th- and 8th-century CE religious monuments in the coastal resort town of Mahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu, India and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It is on the Coromandel Coast of the Bay o ...


References


External links


Photos of the siteAsian Historical Architecture: Arjuna's Penance
{{Authority control 7th-century sculptures Archaeological sites in Tamil Nadu Mahabalipuram Archaeological monuments in Tamil Nadu Sculptures of elephants Rock reliefs in India Rivers in art