Anglo-Saxon runes or Anglo-Frisian runes are

runes Runes are the Letter (alphabet), letters in a set of related alphabets, known as runic rows, runic alphabets or futharks (also, see ''#Futharks, futhark'' vs ''#Runic alphabets, runic alphabet''), native to the Germanic peoples. Runes were ...

that were used by the

Anglo-Saxons The Anglo-Saxons, in some contexts simply called Saxons or the English, were a Cultural identity, cultural group who spoke Old English and inhabited much of what is now England and south-eastern Scotland in the Early Middle Ages. They traced t ...

and Medieval

Frisians The Frisians () are an ethnic group indigenous to the German Bight, coastal regions of the Netherlands, north-western Germany and southern Denmark. They inhabit an area known as Frisia and are concentrated in the Dutch provinces of Friesland an ...

(collectively called

Anglo-Frisians The Anglo-Frisian languages are a proposed sub-branch of the West Germanic languages encompassing the Anglic languages ( English, Scots, extinct Fingallian, and extinct Yola) as well as the Frisian languages ( North Frisian, East Frisian, a ...

) as an

alphabet An alphabet is a standard set of letter (alphabet), letters written to represent particular sounds in a spoken language. Specifically, letters largely correspond to phonemes as the smallest sound segments that can distinguish one word from a ...

in their native

writing system A writing system comprises a set of symbols, called a ''script'', as well as the rules by which the script represents a particular language. The earliest writing appeared during the late 4th millennium BC. Throughout history, each independen ...

, recording both

Old English Old English ( or , or ), or Anglo-Saxon, is the earliest recorded form of the English language, spoken in England and southern and eastern Scotland in the Early Middle Ages. It developed from the languages brought to Great Britain by Anglo-S ...

and

Old Frisian Old Frisian was a West Germanic language spoken between the late 13th century and the end of 16th century. It is the common ancestor of all the modern Frisian languages except for the North Frisian language#Insular North Frisian, Insular North ...

(, ᚱᚢᚾᚪ, "rune"). Today, the characters are known collectively as the futhorc (ᚠᚢᚦᚩᚱᚳ, ''fuþorc'') from the sound values of the first six runes. The futhorc was a development from the older co-Germanic 24-character runic alphabet, known today as

Elder Futhark The Elder Futhark (or Fuþark, ), also known as the Older Futhark, Old Futhark, or Germanic Futhark, is the oldest form of the runic alphabets. It was a writing system used by Germanic peoples for Northwest Germanic dialects in the Migration Per ...

, expanding to 28 characters in its older form and up to 34 characters in its younger form. In contemporary Scandinavia, the Elder Futhark developed into a shorter 16-character alphabet, today simply called Younger Futhark. Use of the Anglo-Frisian runes is likely to have started in the 5th century onward and they continued to see use into the

High Middle Ages The High Middle Ages, or High Medieval Period, was the periodization, period of European history between and ; it was preceded by the Early Middle Ages and followed by the Late Middle Ages, which ended according to historiographical convention ...

. They were later accompanied and eventually overtaken by the

Old English Latin alphabet The Old English Latin alphabet generally consisted of about 24 letters, and was used for writing Old English from the 8th to the 12th centuries. Of these letters, most were directly adopted from the Latin alphabet, two were modified Latin letters ...

introduced to

Anglo-Saxon England Anglo-Saxon England or early medieval England covers the period from the end of Roman Empire, Roman imperial rule in Roman Britain, Britain in the 5th century until the Norman Conquest in 1066. Compared to modern England, the territory of the ...

by missionaries. Futhorc runes were no longer in common use by the eleventh century, but MS Oxford St John's College 17 indicates that fairly accurate understanding of them persisted into at least the twelfth century.

History

The Anglo-Frisian runic row was a 28-type further development of the 24-type

(type = number of runes), introducing more runes and reworking some existing runes to fit the period language. Starting from around the 5th century, it was used in

Britain Britain most often refers to: * Great Britain, a large island comprising the countries of England, Scotland and Wales * The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, a sovereign state in Europe comprising Great Britain and the north-eas ...

and

Frisia Frisia () is a Cross-border region, cross-border Cultural area, cultural region in Northwestern Europe. Stretching along the Wadden Sea, it encompasses the north of the Netherlands and parts of northwestern Germany. Wider definitions of "Frisia" ...

as part of the diffuse

Anglo-Frisian The Anglo-Frisian languages are a proposed sub-branch of the West Germanic languages encompassing the Anglic languages ( English, Scots, extinct Fingallian, and extinct Yola) as well as the Frisian languages ( North Frisian, East Frisian, ...

cultured sphere. Around the 8th century, runic writing disappears from Frisia, but use continues in Britain. In the 9th century, the now Anglo-Saxon runic row, was further developed and more runes were introduced, eventually becoming a 33-type runic row with some further unstandardized examples of runes existing. In its late stage, it was largely analogous to the Latin script, and disappeared in its favour during the

. Usage and commonality is unclear. From at least five centuries of use, fewer than 200 artifacts bearing futhorc inscriptions have survived.

Origin

The origin of the Anglo-Frisian runic row is unknown. There are various theories to its creation. It could have been created in either Frisia or Britain and then exported to the other, alternatively something completely different. One theory proposes that it was developed in

and from there later spread to Britain. Another holds that runes were first introduced to Britain from the mainland where they were then modified and exported to Frisia. Both theories have their inherent weaknesses, and a definitive answer may come from further archaeological evidence.

Anglo-Frisian development

The early futhorc was nearly identical to the Elder Futhark, except for the split of ''a'' into three variants ''āc'', ''æsc'' and ''ōs'', resulting in 26 runes. This was done to account for the new phoneme produced by the

Ingvaeonic North Sea Germanic, also known as Ingvaeonic ( ), is a subgrouping of West Germanic languages that consists of Old Frisian, Old English, and Old Saxon, and their descendants. These languages share a number of commonalities, such as a single pl ...

split of allophones of long and short ''a''. The earliest known instance of the ''ōs'' rune may be from the 5th century, on the Undley bracteate. The earliest known instances of the ''āc'' rune may be from the 6th century, appearing on objects such as the Schweindorf solidus. The double-barred '' hægl'' characteristic of continental inscriptions is first attested as late as 698, on St Cuthbert's coffin; before that, the single-barred variant was used.

Anglo-Saxon development

In England, outside of the Brittonic West Country where evidence of

Latin Latin ( or ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken by the Latins (Italic tribe), Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area aroun ...

and even

Ogham Ogham (also ogam and ogom, , Modern Irish: ; , later ) is an Early Medieval alphabet used primarily to write the early Irish language (in the "orthodox" inscriptions, 4th to 6th centuries AD), and later the Old Irish language ( scholastic ...

continued for several centuries, usage of the futhorc expanded. Runic writing in England became closely associated with the Latin scriptoria from the time of Anglo-Saxon Christianization in the 7th century. In some cases, texts would be written in the Latin alphabet, and þorn and ƿynn came to be used as extensions of the Latin alphabet. Additionally, in texts such as

Beowulf ''Beowulf'' (; ) is an Old English poetry, Old English poem, an Epic poetry, epic in the tradition of Germanic heroic legend consisting of 3,182 Alliterative verse, alliterative lines. It is one of the most important and List of translat ...

and The Exeter Book, Anglo-Saxon runes were sometimes used as ideographic runes alongside the Latin alphabet to abbreviate words; for example, ᛗ was sometimes used to abbreviate "mann". By the time of the Norman Conquest of 1066 it was very rare, and it disappeared altogether a few centuries thereafter. Several famous English examples mix runes and Roman script, or

and Latin, on the same object, including the

Franks Casket The Franks Casket (or the Auzon Casket) is a small Anglo-Saxon whale's bone (not "whalebone" in the sense of baleen) chest (furniture), chest from the early 8th century, now in the British Museum. The casket is densely decorated with knife-cut ...

and St Cuthbert's coffin; in the latter, three of the names of the

Four Evangelists In Christian tradition, the Four Evangelists are Matthew the Apostle, Matthew, Mark the Evangelist, Mark, Luke the Evangelist, Luke, and John the Evangelist, John, the authors attributed with the creation of the four canonical Gospel accounts ...

are given in Latin written in runes, but "LUKAS" (

Saint Luke Luke the Evangelist was one of the Four Evangelists—the four traditionally ascribed authors of the canonical gospels. The Early Church Fathers ascribed to him authorship of both the Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles. Prominent figu ...

) is in Roman script. The coffin is also an example of an object created at the heart of the Anglo-Saxon church that uses runes. A leading expert, Raymond Ian Page, rejects the assumption often made in non-scholarly literature that runes were especially associated in post-conversion Anglo-Saxon England with

Anglo-Saxon paganism Anglo-Saxon paganism, sometimes termed Anglo-Saxon heathenism, Anglo-Saxon pre-Christian religion, Anglo-Saxon traditional religion, or Anglo-Saxon polytheism refers to the religious beliefs and practices followed by the Anglo-Saxons between t ...

or magic.

Letters

The letter sequence and letter inventory of futhorc, along with the actual sounds indicated by those letters, could vary depending on location and time. That being so, an authentic and unified list of runes is not possible.

Rune inventory

The sequence of the runes above is based on The first 24 of these runes directly continue the elder futhark letters, and do not deviate in sequence (though rather than is an attested sequence in both elder futhark and futhorc). The manuscripts

Codex Sangallensis 878 Codex Sangallensis 878 is a manuscript kept in the library of the Abbey of St. Gall, in Switzerland. It dates to the 9th century and probably originates in Fulda monastery. It contains mainly excerpts of grammatical texts, including the ''Ars mino ...

and Cotton MS have precede . The names of the runes above are based on Codex Vindobonensis 795, besides the names ''ing'' and ''æsc'' which come from The Byrhtferth's Manuscript and replace the seemingly corrupted names ''lug'' and ''æs'' found in Codex Vindobonensis 795. ''Ti'' is sometimes named ''tir'' or ''tyr'' in other manuscripts. The words in parentheses in the name column are standardized spellings. The runes in the second table, above, were not included in Codex Vindobonensis 795: ''Calc'' appears in manuscripts, and epigraphically on the

Ruthwell Cross The Ruthwell Cross is a stone Anglo-Saxon cross probably dating from the 8th century, when the village of Ruthwell, now in Scotland, was part of the Anglo-Saxon Kingdom of Northumbria. It is the most famous and elaborate Anglo-Saxon monumental ...

, the Bramham Moor Ring, the Kingmoor Ring, and elsewhere. Gar appears in manuscripts, and epigraphically on the Ruthwell Cross and probably on the Bewcastle Cross. The unnamed rune only appears on the Ruthwell Cross, where it seems to take ''calc'''s place as /k/ where that consonant is followed by a secondary fronted vowel. ''Cweorð'' and ''stan'' only appear in manuscripts. The unnamed ę rune only appears on the Baconsthorpe Grip. The unnamed į rune only appears on the Sedgeford Handle. While the rune poem and Cotton MS present as ''ior'', and as ''ger'', epigraphically both are variants of ''ger'' (although is only attested once outside of manuscripts (on the Brandon Pin). R.I. Page designated ior a pseudo-rune. There is little doubt that ''calc'' and ''gar'' are modified forms of ''cen'' and ''gyfu'', and that they were invented to address the ambiguity which arose from /k/ and /g/ spawning palatalized offshoots. R.I. Page designated ''cweorð'' and ''stan'' "pseudo-runes" because they appear pointless, and speculated that ''cweorð'' was invented merely to give futhorc an equivalent to 'Q'. The ę rune is likely a local innovation, possibly representing an unstressed vowel, and may derive its shape from }. The unnamed į rune is found in a personal name (bįrnferþ), where it stands for a vowel or

diphthong A diphthong ( ), also known as a gliding vowel or a vowel glide, is a combination of two adjacent vowel sounds within the same syllable. Technically, a diphthong is a vowel with two different targets: that is, the tongue (and/or other parts of ...

. Anglo-Saxon expert Gaby Waxenberger speculates that į may not be a true rune, but rather a bindrune of and , or the result of a mistake.

Combinations and digraphs

Various runic combinations are found in the futhorc corpus. For example, the sequence ᚫᚪ appears on the Mortain Casket where ᛠ could theoretically have been used. Abecedarium anguliscum scan

Usage and culture

A rune in Old English could be called a ''rūnstæf'' (perhaps meaning something along the lines of "mystery letter" or "whisper letter"), or simply ''rūn''. Futhorc inscriptions hold diverse styles and contents.

Ochre Ochre ( ; , ), iron ochre, or ocher in American English, is a natural clay earth pigment, a mixture of ferric oxide and varying amounts of clay and sand. It ranges in colour from yellow to deep orange or brown. It is also the name of the colou ...

has been detected on at least one English

runestone A runestone is typically a raised stone with a runic alphabet, runic inscription, but the term can also be applied to inscriptions on boulders and on bedrock. The tradition of erecting runestones as a memorial to dead men began in the 4th centur ...

, implying its runes were once painted. Bind runes are common in futhorc (relative to its small corpus), and were seemingly used most often to ensure the runes would fit in a limited space. Futhorc logography is attested to in a few manuscripts. This was done by having a rune stand for its name, or a similar sounding word. In the sole extant manuscript of the poem ''

'', the ēðel rune was used as a logogram for the word ēðel (meaning "homeland", or "estate"). Both the Hackness Stone and Codex Vindobonensis 795 attest to futhorc

Cipher runes Cipher runes, or cryptic runes, are the cryptographical replacement of the letters of the runic alphabet. Preservation The knowledge of cipher runes was best preserved in Iceland, and during the 17th–18th centuries, Icelandic scholars produce ...

. In one manuscript (Corpus Christi College, MS 041) a writer seems to have used futhorc runes like

Roman numerals Roman numerals are a numeral system that originated in ancient Rome and remained the usual way of writing numbers throughout Europe well into the Late Middle Ages. Numbers are written with combinations of letters from the Latin alphabet, eac ...

, writing ᛉᛁᛁ

⁊ Tironian notes () are a form of thousands of signs that were formerly used in a system of shorthand (Tironian shorthand) dating from the 1st century BCE and named after Tiro, a personal secretary to Marcus Tullius Cicero, who is often credited ...

ᛉᛉᛉᛋᚹᛁᚦᚩᚱ, which likely means "12&30 more". There is some evidence of futhorc rune magic. The possibly magical alu sequence seems to appear on an urn found at Spong Hill in ''spiegelrunes'' (runes whose shapes are mirrored). In a tale from Bede's ''Ecclesiastical History'' (written in Latin), a man named Imma cannot be bound by his captors and is asked if he is using "litteras solutorias" (loosening letters) to break his binds. In one Old English translation of the passage, Imma is asked if he is using "drycraft" (magic, druidcraft) or "runestaves" to break his binds. Furthermore, futhorc rings have been found with what appear to be enchanted inscriptions for the stanching of blood.

Inscription corpus

The Old English and Old Frisian Runic Inscriptions database project at the Catholic University of Eichstätt-Ingolstadt,

Germany Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It lies between the Baltic Sea and the North Sea to the north and the Alps to the south. Its sixteen States of Germany, constituent states have a total popu ...

aims at collecting the genuine corpus of Old English inscriptions containing more than two runes in its paper edition, while the electronic edition aims at including both genuine and doubtful inscriptions down to single-rune inscriptions. The corpus of the paper edition encompasses about one hundred objects (including stone slabs, stone crosses, bones, rings, brooches, weapons, urns, a writing tablet, tweezers, a sun-dial, comb,

bracteate A bracteate (from the Latin ''bractea'', a thin piece of metal) is a flat, thin, single-sided gold medal worn as jewelry that was produced in Northern Europe predominantly during the Migration Period of the Germanic Iron Age (including the Ven ...

s, caskets, a font, dishes, and graffiti). The database includes, in addition, 16 inscriptions containing a single rune, several runic coins, and 8 cases of dubious runic characters (runelike signs, possible Latin characters, weathered characters). Comprising fewer than 200 inscriptions, the corpus is slightly larger than that of Continental Elder Futhark (about 80 inscriptions, c. 400–700), but slightly smaller than that of the Scandinavian Elder Futhark (about 260 inscriptions, c. 200–800). Runic finds in England cluster along the east coast with a few finds scattered further inland in Southern England. Frisian finds cluster in

West Frisia West Frisia (; ; ) is a term that, when used in an international context, refers to the traditionally Frisian areas that are located west of the Dollart (i.e. in the present-day Netherlands). Along with East Frisia and North Frisia, it is one ...

. Looijenga (1997) lists 23 English (including two 7th-century Christian inscriptions) and 21 Frisian inscriptions predating the 9th century. British Museum Runic Silver Animal Head

Frisian

Currently known inscriptions in Anglo-Frisian runes from Frisia include: * Ferwerd combcase, 6th century; ''me uræ'' * Amay comb, c. 600; ''eda'' * Oostyn comb, 8th century; ''aib ka u / deda habuku'' (with a triple-barred ''h'') * Toornwerd comb, 8th century; ''kabu'' * Skanomodu

solidus Solidus (Latin for "solid") may refer to: * Solidus (coin) The ''solidus'' (Latin 'solid'; : ''solidi'') or ''nomisma'' () was a highly pure gold coin issued in the Later Roman Empire and Byzantine Empire. It was introduced in the early ...

, 575–610; ''skanomodu'' * Harlingen solidus, 575–625, ''hada'' (two ''ac'' runes, double-barred ''h'') * Schweindorf solidus, 575–625, ''wela u'' "Weyland" (or ''þeladu''; running right to left) * Folkestone

tremissis The tremissis or tremis (Greek: τριμίσιον, ''trimision'') was a small pure gold coin of Late Antiquity. Its name, meaning "a third of a unit", formed by analogy with semissis (half of a unit), indicated its value relative to the soli ...

, c. 650; ''æniwulufu'' * Midlum sceat, c. 750; ''æpa'' * Rasquert swordhandle (whalebone handle of a symbolic sword), late 8th century; ''ek ædit oka'', "I, Oka, not made mad" (compare ''ek unwodz'' from the Danish corpus) * Arum sword, a yew-wood miniature sword, late 8th century; ''edæboda'' * Westeremden A, a yew weaving-slay; ''adujislume �isuhidu * Westeremden B, a yew-stick, 8th century; ''oph?nmuji?adaamluþ / :wimœ?ahþu?? / iwio?u?du?ale'' * Britsum yew-stick; ''þkniaberetdud / ]n:bsrsdnu''; the ''k'' has Younger Futhark shape and probably represents a vowel. * Hantum whalebone plate; '' aha:k '; the reverse side is inscribed with Roman ''ABA''. * Bernsterburen whalebone staff, c. 800; ''tuda æwudu kius þu tuda'' * Hamwic horse knucklebone, dated to between 650 and 1025; ''katæ'' (categorised as Frisian on linguistic grounds, from ''*kautōn'' "knucklebone") * Wijnaldum B gold pendant, c. 600; ''hiwi'' * Kantens combcase, early 5th century; ''li'' * Hoogebeintum comb, c. 700; ''[...]nlu / ded'' * Wijnaldum A antler piece; ''zwfuwizw ..'

English

Currently known inscriptions in Anglo-Frisian runes from England include: * Ash Gilton (Kent) gilt silver sword pommel, 6th century; '' ..msigimer ..' * Chessel Down I (Isle of Wight), 6th century; '' ..wseeekkkaaa'' * Chessel Down II (Isle of Wight) silver plate (attached to the scabbard mouthpiece of a ring-sword), early 6th century; ''æko: ri'' * Boarley (Kent) copper disc-brooch, c. 600; ''ærsil'' * Harford (Norfolk) brooch, c. 650; ''luda:gibœtæsigilæ'' "Luda repaired the brooch" * West Heslerton (North Yorkshire) copper cruciform brooch, early 6th century; ''neim'' * Loveden Hill (Lincolnshire) urn; 5th to 6th century; reading uncertain, maybe ''sïþæbæd þiuw hlaw'' "the grave of Siþæbæd the maid" * Spong Hill (Norfolk), three cremation urns, 5th century; decorated with identical runic stamps, reading '' alu'' (in

Spiegelrunen Cipher runes, or cryptic runes, are the cryptography, cryptographical replacement of the letters of the runic alphabet. Preservation The knowledge of cipher runes was best preserved in Iceland, and during the 17th–18th centuries, Icelandic sch ...

). * Kent II coins (some 30 items), 7th century; reading ''pada'' * Kent III, IV silver sceattas, c. 600; reading ''æpa'' and ''epa'' * Suffolk gold shillings (three items), c. 660; stamped with ''desaiona'' *

Caistor-by-Norwich astragalus The Caistor-by-Norwich astragalus is a roe deer Talus bone, astragalus (ankle bone) found in an urn at Caistor St. Edmund, Norfolk, England in 1937. The astragalus is inscribed with a 5th-century Elder Futhark inscription, reading "roe deer". ...

, 5th century; possibly a Scandinavian import, in Elder Futhark transliteration reading ''raïhan'' "roe" * Watchfield (Oxfordshire) copper fittings, 6th century; Elder Futhark reading ''hariboki:wusa'' (with ''a'' probably already fronted to ''æ'') * Wakerley (Northamptonshire) copper brooch, 6th century; ''buhui'' * Dover (Kent) brooch, c. 600; ''þd bli / bkk'' * Upper Thames Valley gold coins (four items), 620s; ''benu:tigoii''; ''benu:+:tidi'' * Willoughby-on-the-Wolds (Nottinghamshire) copper bowl, c. 600; ''a'' * Cleatham (South Humbershire) copper bowl, c. 600; '' ..dih'' *

Sandwich A sandwich is a Dish (food), dish typically consisting variously of meat, cheese, sauces, and vegetables used as a filling between slices of bread, or placed atop a slice of bread; or, more generally, any dish in which bread serves as a ''co ...

/Richborough (Kent) stone, 650 or earlier; '' ..habu ..'', perhaps ''*ræhæbul'' "stag" * Whitby I (Yorkshire) jet spindle whorl; ''ueu'' * Selsey (West Sussex) gold plates, 6th to 8th centuries; ''brnrn'' / ''anmu'' * St. Cuthbert's coffin (Durham), dated to 698 * Whitby II (Yorkshire) bone comb, 7th century; '' æs mæus godaluwalu dohelipæ cy ' i.e. ''deus meus, god aluwaldo, helpæ Cy...'' "my god, almighty god, help Cy..." (Cynewulf or a similar personal name; compare also names of God in Old English poetry">Cynewulf">' i.e. ''deus meus, god aluwaldo, helpæ Cy...'' "my god, almighty god, help Cy..." (Cynewulf or a similar personal name; compare also names of God in Old English poetry.) * the Franks casket; 7th century * zoomorphic silver-gilt knife mount, discovered in the River Thames near Westminster Bridge (late 8th century) * the

; 8th century, the inscription may be partly a modern reconstruction * the Brandon antler piece, ''wohs wildum deoræ an'' "

his His or HIS may refer to: Computing * Hightech Information System, a Hong Kong graphics card company * Honeywell Information Systems * Hybrid intelligent system * Microsoft Host Integration Server Education * Hangzhou International School, ...

grew on a wild animal"; 9th century. * Kingmoor Ring * the Seax of Beagnoth; 9th century (also known as the Thames scramasax); the only complete alphabet * Near Fakenham plaque; 8th-11th century lead plaque interpreted as bearing a healing inscription

Related manuscript texts

* Codex Sangallensis 270 — lists runes with their names, and explains how to use certain rune ciphers *

— contains a presentation of Anglo-Saxon runes * Codex Vindobonensis 795 — contains a description of Anglo-Saxon runes * Cotton Domitian A.IX — lists runes with their names * Cotton Otho B.x.165 — contained the Old English rune poem before being destroyed in a fire * Cotton Vitellius A.XII — lists runes in alphabetical order * MS Oxford St. John's College 17 — contains a

Notes

References

* . * . * . * * J. H. Looijenga,
Runes around the North Sea and on the Continent AD 150–700
', dissertation, Groningen University (1997). * Odenstedt, Bengt, ''On the Origin and Early History of the Runic Script'', Uppsala (1990), ; chapter 20: 'The position of continental and Anglo-Frisian runic forms in the history of the older ''futhark'' ' * * * * ''Frisian runes and neighbouring traditions'', Amsterdamer Beiträge zur älteren Germanistik 45 (1996). *H. Marquardt, ''Die Runeninschriften der Britischen Inseln'' (Bibliographie der Runeninschriften nach Fundorten, Bd. I), Abhandlungen der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Göttingen, Phil.-hist. Klasse, dritte Folge, Nr. 48, Göttingen 1961, pp. 10–16.

External links

*Frisia Coast Trail (2023)
Scratching runes was not much different from spraying tagsEarly Runic Inscriptions in EnglandPortable Antiquities Scheme (has information on runic artefacts from England)Presenter: The Ruthwell Cross (3D rendering of the Ruthwell Cross)The Byrhtferth's Manuscript
{{DEFAULTSORT:Anglo-Saxon Runes Old English