''Alessandro nell'Indie'' () is a

libretto A libretto (From the Italian word , ) is the text used in, or intended for, an extended musical work such as an opera, operetta, masque, oratorio, cantata or Musical theatre, musical. The term ''libretto'' is also sometimes used to refer to th ...

in three acts by

Pietro Metastasio Pietro Antonio Domenico Trapassi (3 January 1698 – 12 April 1782), better known by his pseudonym of Pietro Metastasio (), was an Italian poet and Libretto, librettist, considered the most important writer of ''opera seria'' libretti. Early ...

. It was set to music around ninety times firstly by Leonardo Vinci, whose version premiered in

Rome Rome (Italian language, Italian and , ) is the capital city and most populated (municipality) of Italy. It is also the administrative centre of the Lazio Regions of Italy, region and of the Metropolitan City of Rome. A special named with 2, ...

on 2 January 1730. The libretto was the fourth of five that Metastasio wrote for the Teatro delle Dame in Rome between 1727 and 1730. The work was dedicated to the Stuart pretender to the British throne,

James Francis Edward Stuart James Francis Edward Stuart (10 June 16881 January 1766), nicknamed the Old Pretender by Whigs (British political party), Whigs or the King over the Water by Jacobitism, Jacobites, was the House of Stuart claimant to the thrones of Ki ...

, then resident in Rome. ''Alessandro nell'Indie'' became Metastasio's second most popular work, after '' Artaserse''. Both were written for the Rome carnival season.

Synopsis

The libretto tells the story of the Indian campaign of

Alexander the Great Alexander III of Macedon (; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), most commonly known as Alexander the Great, was a king of the Ancient Greece, ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia (ancient kingdom), Macedon. He succeeded his father Philip ...

and his defeat of king

Porus Porus or Poros ( ; 326–321 BC) was an ancient Indian king whose territory spanned the region between the Jhelum River (Hydaspes) and Chenab River (Acesines), in the Punjab region of what is now India and Pakistan. He is only mentioned in Gr ...

in 326 BCE at the

Battle of the Hydaspes The Battle of the Hydaspes also known as Battle of Jhelum, or First Battle of Jhelum, was fought between the Macedonian Empire under Alexander the Great and the Pauravas under Porus in May of 326 BCE. It took place on the banks of the Hydas ...

. After the battle the two kings were reconciled and Alexander left Porus as ruler of his kingdom. The action takes place on the banks of the Hydaspes, where Alexander's camp stands on one side of the river and the residence of Cleofide on the other. Roles * ''Alessandro il Grande'' (

), premiered by Raffaele Signorini * ''Poro'' (

), Indian king, lover of Cleofide, premiered by Giovanni Carestini * ''Cleofide'' (

Cleophis Cleophis (Sanskrit: ''Kripa'' ) was an Assacani Rani, queen and key figure in the war between the Assacani people and Alexander the Great. Cleophis was the mother of Assacanus, the Assacanis' war-leader at the time of Alexander's invasion in 326 ...

), Indian queen and lover of Porus, premiered by Giacinto Fontana, also known as " Farfallino" * ''Erissena'', Poros' sister, premiere by Giuseppe Appiani * ''Gandarte'', Porus' friend and general, who loves Erissena, premiered by Francesco Tolve * ''Timagene'' ( Coenus), Alexander's general and secret enemy, premiered by Giovanni Antonio Taffi The following plot summary is based on the setting by

Carl Heinrich Graun Carl Heinrich Graun (7 May 1704 – 8 August 1759) was a German composer and tenor. Along with Johann Adolph Hasse, he is considered to be the most important German composer of Italian opera of his time. Biography Graun was born in Wahrenbrüc ...

in his 1774 opera, ''Alessandro e Poro''.

Act 1

The Indian camp after Porus' defeat At the end of the overture, warlike music and the sound of guns can be heard. As the curtain opens, the Indian soldiers are seen fleeing from Alessandro's troops. The Indian King Poro tries to stop their flight, but unable to do so, he tries to kill himself. However, he is prevented by his general Gandarte, who reminds him of his beloved Cleofide. However, Poro believes that she has entered into a relationship with Alessandro. To protect his king, Gandarte offers to exchange clothes, and from then on Poro appears as Asbite and Gandarte as Poro. A little later Asbite / Poro is arrested by Timagene after a short fight. Alessandro comes in and orders no unnecessary blood to be spilled. Timagene leaves to pass the order on to the soldiers. After Asbite / Poro is introduced to Alessandro as a friend of Poro, Alessandro releases him and asks him to tell Poro that all he had to do was submit in order to secure to peace. He also gives him his own sword as a gift. Poro accepts this, but swears to Alessandro to use it against himself. Timagene comes with the captive Erissena, Poro's sister, who was handed over to him by two Indians. Alessandro is horrified by this act. He orders the two traitors to be bound and handed over to Poro. Despite Timagene's advice, Erissena is released immediately. After Alessandro leaves, Erissena tells Timagene how impressed she is by Alessandro. Timagene, who has his eye on Erissena himself, becomes jealous. A place surrounded by shady trees Poro relates Alessandro's victory to Cleofide, whom he considers to be Alessandro's lover. Cleofide, however, assures him of her continued love and asks him to trust her. He swears never to be jealous again. However, when Cleofide asks Erissena, who has just arrived, whether Alessandro had spoken of her, his jealousy is immediately rekindled. Cleofide sets off for Alessandro's camp. Although Erissena advises Poro to trust Cleofide, he wants to follow her. Gandarte arrives. He has noticed that Timagene is an enemy of Alessandro and therefore still has hope for a victory. He also advises Poro against following Cleofide. Poro goes anyway. When Erissena enthuses to Gandarte about Alessandro, he points out that Poro has already promised her to him. Large open tent with a view of Alessandro's camp and the Cleofide's residence on the other side of the Hydaspes Cleofide crosses the Hydaspes to deliver gifts to Alessandro. He rejects them because he does not accept gifts from friends and only demands loyalty from vassals. Timagene announces the arrival of Asbites/Poro, who wants to speak to him in the presence of Cleofides. Asbite/Poro explains that Poro does not consider himself to have been defeated and rejects the proffer of peace. Cleofide tries to appease Alessandro and invites him to her residence to find out Poro's real intentions. She is sure that Asbite must have misunderstood Poro. However, Asbite assures her that he knows Poro's intentions very well and warns Alessandro about Cleofide, who once loved Poro and has now become unfaithful to him. In order to punish Poro for his renewed jealousy, Cleofide now declares her love for Alessandro. Alessandro promises her friendship, but not his heart. He leaves and Poro is reconciled with Cleofide.

Act 2

Room in Cleofide's Palace Poro and Gandarte plan to seize the bridge over the Hydaspes, counting on the support of Timagene. When Erissena reports Alessandro's arrival, Poro thinks again of Cleofide's alleged infidelity. Gandarte advises him to forget her, and leaves. Although Erissena would like to see Alessandro again, Poro sends her away. He intends to avoid Cleofide and is anticipating victory over Alessandro. By the bridge over the Hydaspes, with the Greek camp on the far bank Accompanied by warlike music, Alessandro and Timagene cross the bridge with part of their army. Cleofide comes to meet them with her retinue and greets him in a friendly manner. The greeting is interrupted by the sound of guns when Poro attacks. Alessandro and Timagene hurry to the bridge. The attack has been repelled by Alessandro. Cleofide begs the fleeing Poro not to leave her, but only when she threatens to plunge into the river and finally promises him marriage does he give in. With the enemy approaching, Poro pulls out his dagger to kill both Cleofide and himself, but Alessandro snatches it from him. To justify his action Asbite/Poro wants to reveal his true identity, but he is interrupted by the arrival of Timagene. Timagene reports that the soldiers blame Cleofide for the ambush and demand her blood. However, since Asbite/Poro assumes the blame himself, Alessandro arrests him and hands him over to Timagene. Cleofide begs Alessandro in vain to release him. Timagene sends Cleofide to his palace, and she asks him to tell Poro to remain steadfast. Timagene hands Asbite/Poro a letter assuring him that he is not to blame for the failure of the assault. Poro leaves. Timagene hopes that his intrigues against Alessandro will eventually be successful. Room in Cleofide's Palace Cleofide tells Gandarte that Poro intended to kill her out of love. Alessandro arrives and Gandarte hides. Alessandro tells Cleofide that he has failed to calm his soldiers' anger, and Cleofide is ready to die as a martyr. In order to save her, Alessandro offers to marry her. Since Cleofide does not want this, Gandarte, who is still dressed as Poro, comes out of hiding and offers himself as a sacrifice to save Cleofide. Alessandro is so impressed by this nobility that he hands Cleofide over to him and promises to release Asbite too. He leaves. Erissena comes and reports that Poro has thrown himself into the Hydaspes and is dead. Erissena advises the desperate Cleofide to flee.

Act 3

Covered colonnade in the palace garden Erissena meets Poro, who is believed to be dead, but the report of his death was only spread by Timagene for his own protection after he released him. Poro is now planning to ambush Alessandro in the garden and wants Timagene to lure him there. To prove that Timagene is on his side, Poro gives Erissena his letter. After Poro leaves, first Cleofide and then Alessandro arrive. Alessandro tries to persuade Cleofide to flee. However, she now wishes to accept his marriage offer. Alessandro asks her to meet him at the temple and leaves. Alessandro comes back with two guards and reports to Erissena that Timagene has uncovered a planned ambush. Erissena believes that Timagene has betrayed her and hands Alessandro Timagene's letter as proof of her own innocence. With Timagene's betrayal now exposed, Alessandro sends Erissena away so he can think. Alessandro asks Timagene what he would do if he were betrayed by a friend. When Timagene replies that mercy would be out if the question in such a case, Alessandro shows him the incriminating letter. Timagene begs for mercy. Alessandro is ready to forgive him if he is faithful in the future. He leaves. Asbite/Poro comes to talk to Timagene about the planned ambush but Timagene no longer wants to have anything to do with it. He leaves, and Gandarte and Erissena come to Poro. Erissena tells him about Cleofide's forthcoming wedding with Alessandro. Poro leaves. Erissena asks Gandarte to help Poro. Temple of Bacchus with a burning funeral pyre Alessandro and Cleofide enter with their retinue. A few

Bacchantes In Greek mythology, maenads (; ) were the female followers of Dionysus and the most significant members of his retinue, the '' thiasus''. Their name, which comes from μαίνομαι (''maínomai'', “to rave, to be mad; to rage, to be angr ...

are walking in front of them and the temple priest with burning torches. Poro watches the scene from a distance. When Alessandro takes Cleofide's hand, she explains that this is the hour of her death, not her wedding. According to local custom, a widow has to follow her husband in death. She wants to hurry to the burning pyre, but is held back by Alessandro. Timagene brings Gandarte, whom he still thinks to be Poro, as a prisoner. Cleofide makes another attempt to throw herself into the flames. Poro, unable to bear her suffering, steps out, reveals himself and asks her forgiveness. He is ready to accept any punishment Alessandro metes out. Alessandro, however, forgives everyone and gives Poro his kingdom back, together with his wife and freedom. In return, Poro rewards Gandarte's steadfastness with the hand of his sister Erissena, and Alessandro gives him the land beyond the Ganges as a gift. The opera ends with a chorus of praise for the fame of Alessandro.

Background

The story of

's encounter with

and the

has been related in many historical sources, notably in the fifth book of

Arrian Arrian of Nicomedia (; Greek: ''Arrianos''; ; ) was a Greek historian, public servant, military commander, and philosopher of the Roman period. '' The Anabasis of Alexander'' by Arrian is considered the best source on the campaigns of ...

's ''Anabasis'',

Justin Justin may refer to: People and fictional characters * Justin (given name), including a list of people and fictional characters with the given name * Justin (historian), Latin historian who lived under the Roman Empire * Justin I (c. 450–527) ...

's excerpt from the twelfth book of Pompeius Trogus' ''Historiae Philippicae'',

Quintus Curtius Rufus Quintus Curtius Rufus (; ) was a Ancient Rome, Roman historian, probably of the 1st century, author of his only known and only surviving work, ''Historiae Alexandri Magni'', "Histories of Alexander the Great", or more fully ''Historiarum Alex ...

' '' Histories of Alexander the Great'' and the chapter ''Alexander – Caesar'' from the '' Vitae parallelae'' by

Plutarch Plutarch (; , ''Ploútarchos'', ; – 120s) was a Greek Middle Platonist philosopher, historian, biographer, essayist, and priest at the Temple of Apollo (Delphi), Temple of Apollo in Delphi. He is known primarily for his ''Parallel Lives'', ...

. In addition to these classical sources Metastasio also had more recent dramatic treatments to draw on. These included the 1648 play ''Porus ou La générosité d'Alexandre'' by Claude Boyer as well as

Jean Racine Jean-Baptiste Racine ( , ; ; 22 December 1639 – 21 April 1699) was a French dramatist, one of the three great playwrights of 17th-century France, along with Molière and Corneille, as well as an important literary figure in the Western tr ...

's 1665 ''Alexandre le grand''. Both of these versions introduced a love theme into the story just as Metastasio did. There are further similarities with 1691 ''L'amante eroe'', set to music by Marc'Antonio Ziani and performed in Venice. David had already provided the model for Metastasio's first libretto '' Siface, re di Numidia''. Metastasio introduced several new elements to the story of Alexander and Porus in ''Alessandro nell'Indie''. Firstly he introduced the jealousy motive with Porus, creating a tension between him and Cleofide not found in earlier works. He also introduced the new character of Timagene, and, with him, a revenge motive. The libretto offers a typical example of the hierarchy of roles in an opera from around 1730. At the top is the ruler, here Alessandro. He is opposed by the first pair of lovers Cleofide and Poro. A second pair, Erissena and Gandarte, and the traitor Timagene, are subordinate to these figures. Each person embodies a different character type. The magnanimous Alessandro opposes the treacherous Timagene, and the couples also complement each other with their contrasting main features: the jealous Poro combines with the faithful Cleofide, the reliable Gandarte with the coquettish Erissena.

Adaptations

Other important settings of the libretto included those by

Johann Adolph Hasse Johann Adolph Hasse (baptised 25 March 1699 – 16 December 1783) was an 18th-century German composer, singer and teacher of music. Immensely popular in his time, Hasse was best known for his prolific operatic output, though he also composed a co ...

, Luigi Gatti and

Giovanni Pacini Giovanni Pacini (11 February 17966 December 1867) was an Italian composer, best known for his operas. Pacini was born in Catania, Sicily, the son of the buffo Luigi Pacini, who was to appear in the premieres of many of Giovanni's operas. The fam ...

. Hasse's adaptation was entitled ''Cleofide'' to reflect the prominence it gave to the role of the heroine, played by Hasse's wife

Faustina Bordoni Faustina Bordoni (30 March 1697 – 4 November 1781) was an Italian mezzo-soprano. In Hamburg, Germany, the Johann Adolph Hasse Museum is dedicated to her husband and partly to Bordoni. Early career She was born in Venice and brought up und ...

George Frideric Handel George Frideric (or Frederick) Handel ( ; baptised , ; 23 February 1685 – 14 April 1759) was a German-British Baroque composer well-known for his operas, oratorios, anthems, concerti grossi, and organ concerti. Born in Halle, Germany, H ...

's 1731 treatment, ('' Poro''), was particularly admired. To suit the tastes of a London audience he cut back the recitative; the first four scenes of Act 2 were also cut to move the action along. Handel replaced various arias in Metastasio's text with new ones which he considered to have greater dramatic expression. Furthermore, as the baritone who was to play Timagene, Giovanni Commano, was not a strong singer, so Handel cut much of the material his role was to have sung. Handel's version was sung at least 27 times at the Hamburg Gänsemarkt-Oper under the title ''Triumph der Grossmuth und Treue, oder CLEOFIDA, Königin von Indien'' with a German translation of the recitative by .Bernd Baselt: ''Thematisch-systematisches Verzeichnis. Bühnenwerke.'' In: Walter Eisen (Ed.): ''Händel-Handbuch: Band 1.'' Deutscher Verlag für Musik, Leipzig 1978, (Unveränderter Nachdruck, Kassel 2008, ), pp.353ff. Metastasio also created a shortened version of the libretto in 1753 for his friend

Farinelli Farinelli (; 24 January 1705 – 16 September 1782) was the stage name of Carlo Maria Michelangelo Nicola Broschi (), a celebrated Italian castrato singer of the 18th century and one of the greatest singers in the history of opera. Farinelli ...

(Carlo Broschi).

Settings to music

The following composers used the libretto as the basis for an opera:

Recent performances and recordings

Johann Christian Bach Johann Christian Bach (5 September 1735 – 1 January 1782) was a German composer of the Classical era, the youngest son of Johann Sebastian Bach. He received his early musical training from his father, and later from his half-brother, Carl ...

: 2000: Performed in the Schlosstheater

Sanssouci Sanssouci () is a historical building in Potsdam, near Berlin. Built by Prussian King Frederick the Great as his summer palace, it is often counted among the German rivals of Versailles. While Sanssouci is in the more intimate Rococo style and ...

in Potsdam, Akademie für Alte Musik Berlin. *

Baldassare Galuppi Baldassare Galuppi (18 October 17063 January 1785) was a Venetian composer, born on the island of Burano in the Venetian Republic. He belonged to a generation of composers, including Johann Adolph Hasse, Giovanni Battista Sammartini, and C.&nbs ...

: 2015: Performed at the Mainfranken Theater Würzburg. *

: 1956, 1957 and 1959: Performed at the Händel-Festspiele Halle, also recorded, by the Händelfestspielorchester Halle. 1994: Concert performance at the

Opéra de Monte-Carlo The Opéra de Monte-Carlo is an opera house which is part of the Monte Carlo Casino located in the Monaco, Principality of Monaco. With the lack of cultural diversions available in Monaco in the 1870s, Charles III, Prince of Monaco, Prince Charl ...

, recorded on CD by

Europa Galante Europa Galante is the Italian period instrument, period-instrument Baroque orchestra founded by violinist Fabio Biondi in 1990 and directed by him. The ensemble has been invited to play at festivals and in concert halls such as La Scala in Milan, ...

. 2006: Performed at the , recorded on CD by the Akademie für Alte Musik Berlin. *

: 1986/1992: CD.

Cappella Coloniensis Cappella Coloniensis is a German orchestra founded by the West German Radio in Cologne in 1954 for the purpose of introducing historically informed performance of Baroque music to the listening public. In 1998 the orchestra received the Georg Phi ...

, Rheinische Kantorei. 1994: Concert performance at the

Théâtre du Châtelet The Théâtre du Châtelet () is a theatre and opera house, located in the place du Châtelet in the 1st arrondissement of Paris, France. One of two theatres (the other being the Théâtre de la Ville) built on the site of a ''châtelet'', a ...

Paris, the Konzerthaus Vienna and in Montreux. Les Arts Florissants, Leitung: William Christie. 2005-2009: Performed at the

Semperoper The Semperoper () is the opera house of the Sächsische Staatsoper Dresden (Saxon State Opera) and the concert hall of the Staatskapelle Dresden (Saxon State Orchestra). It is also home to the Semperoper Ballett. The building is located on the Th ...

, Dresden. Staatsopernchor und Staatskapelle Dresden. *

Gian Francesco de Majo Gian Francesco de Majo (24 March 1732 – 17 November 1770) was an Italian composer. He is best known for his more than 20 operas. He also composed a considerable amount of sacred works, including oratorios, cantatas, and masses. Life and ca ...

: 2008: Performed at the Nationaltheater Mannheim, recorded on CD. Nationaltheater-Orchester Mannheim. *

: 2007: CD.

London Philharmonic Orchestra The London Philharmonic Orchestra (LPO) is a British orchestra based in London. One of five permanent symphony orchestras in London, the LPO was founded by the conductors Thomas Beecham, Sir Thomas Beecham and Malcolm Sargent in 1932 as a riv ...

, Geoffrey Mitchell Choir. * Leonardo Vinci
Arte TV broadcast of the 2022 Bayreuth production of ''Alessandro nel Indie''

External links

online version of the libretto (Italian)

Digital versions

Italian/German Libretto for the setting by Carl Heinrich Graun, Berlin 1784
digital copy at the

Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin The Berlin State Library (; officially abbreviated as ''SBB'', colloquially ''Stabi'') is a universal library in Berlin, Germany, and a property of the German public cultural organization the Prussian Cultural Heritage Foundation (). Founded i ...

References

Silke Leopold: ''Händel. Die Opern.'' Bärenreiter-Verlag, Kassel 2009, , S. 60 ff. Karin Zauft: Programme notes for ''Händel: Poro.'' Landestheater Halle/S. 1981. {{authority control 1730 operas Operas set in the 4th century BC Libretti by Metastasio Italian-language operas Operas Operas based on classical mythology Operas set in Pakistan James Francis Edward Stuart Cultural depictions of Alexander the Great