The Afghanistan–India Strategic Partnership Agreement was a

bilateral agreement Bilateralism is the conduct of political, economic, or cultural relations between two sovereign states. It is in contrast to unilateralism or multilateralism, which is activity by a single state or jointly by multiple states, respectively. When ...

between the Republic of India and the

Islamic Republic of Afghanistan The Islamic Republic of Afghanistan was a presidential republic in Afghanistan from 2004 to 2021. The state was established to replace the Afghan Afghan Interim Administration, interim (2001–2002) and Transitional Islamic State of Afghanist ...

, signed on 4 October 2011. It was aimed at enhancing cooperation between the two nations across various sectors, including security, trade,

economic development In economics, economic development (or economic and social development) is the process by which the economic well-being and quality of life of a nation, region, local community, or an individual are improved according to targeted goals and object ...

, and

cultural exchange Culture ( ) is a concept that encompasses the social behavior, institutions, and norms found in human societies, as well as the knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, customs, capabilities, attitudes, and habits of the individuals in these ...

. It was Afghanistan's first such agreement with any country, highlighting India's role in Afghanistan's post-2001 reconstruction attempts. The agreement formalized the long-standing relationship between the two nations and provided a framework for establishing their collaboration in areas such as

infrastructure Infrastructure is the set of facilities and systems that serve a country, city, or other area, and encompasses the services and facilities necessary for its economy, households and firms to function. Infrastructure is composed of public and pri ...

development, security training, and regional stability. Both countries viewed the partnership as important for their respective strategic interests, with India supporting Afghanistan's stability and development while Afghanistan sought to strengthen ties with a

regional power In international relations, regional power, since the late 20thcentury, has been used for a sovereign state that exercises significant power within its geographical region.Joachim Betz, Ian Taylor"The Rise of (New) Regional Powers in Asia, ...

. The agreement was implemented against the backdrop of a complex geopolitical landscape, influenced by regional security concerns and shifting international dynamics.

Historical context

Maulana Abul Kalam Azad with Sir Usha Nath Sen and others

Afghanistan and India have shared deep historical, cultural, and trade relations for centuries, with interactions dating back to ancient times. These ties persisted through various empires, such as the

Mauryan The Maurya Empire was a geographically extensive Iron Age historical power in South Asia with its power base in Magadha. Founded by Chandragupta Maurya around c. 320 BCE, it existed in loose-knit fashion until 185 BCE. The primary sourc ...

and

Mughal period The Mughal Empire was an early modern empire in South Asia. At its peak, the empire stretched from the outer fringes of the Indus River Basin in the west, northern Afghanistan in the northwest, and Kashmir in the north, to the highlands of pre ...

s, fostering long-standing cultural and economic exchanges. In the modern era, however, geopolitical shifts and internal instability in Afghanistan, particularly during the Soviet invasion (1979–1989) and the subsequent civil war, strained these relations. Following the U.S.-led invasion of Afghanistan in 2001 and the fall of the

Taliban , leader1_title = Supreme Leader of Afghanistan, Supreme leaders , leader1_name = {{indented plainlist, * Mullah Omar{{Natural Causes{{nbsp(1994–2013) * Akhtar Mansour{{Assassinated (2015–2016) * Hibatullah Akhundzada (2016–present) ...

regime, India emerged as one of Afghanistan's most consistent partners in reconstruction and development. India's involvement focused on

humanitarian assistance Humanitarian assistance is aid and action designed to save lives, alleviate suffering, and maintain human dignity during and after man-made crises and disasters. It encompasses a wide range of activities, including providing food, water, shelter, ...

, infrastructure development, and institutional

capacity building Capacity building (or capacity development, capacity strengthening) is the improvement in an individual's or organization's facility (or capability) "to produce, perform or deploy". The terms capacity building and capacity development have often ...

. This relationship was driven by India's desire to foster stability in Afghanistan and prevent the spread of

extremism Extremism is "the quality or state of being extreme" or "the advocacy of extreme measures or views". The term is primarily used in a political or religious sense to refer to an ideology that is considered (by the speaker or by some implied sha ...

, which had regional security implications, particularly in relation to its concerns about Pakistan. India's contributions to Afghanistan's post-war reconstruction included key projects such as the construction of the

Afghan Parliament The Leadership Council of the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, also translated as the Supreme Council (, also referred to as the Inner Shura), is an advisory council to the Supreme Leader of Afghanistan. The supreme leader convenes and chairs the ...

, power

transmission line In electrical engineering, a transmission line is a specialized cable or other structure designed to conduct electromagnetic waves in a contained manner. The term applies when the conductors are long enough that the wave nature of the transmis ...

s, and major roadways like the

Delaram-Zaranj Highway Route 606, also known as Delaram-Zaranj Highway, also officially designated as NH49, is a 218 km roadwayBego, Bruno J ''Afghanistan International Security Force website'', August 30, 2011. Retrieved on September 10, 2011. in the Nimruz Prov ...

. By 2011, India had pledged over $2 billion in assistance, making it one of Afghanistan's largest regional donors. The signing of the Strategic Partnership Agreement in October 2011 formalized this existing cooperation and laid the foundation for an expanded partnership. The agreement came at a time when international forces, primarily from the

United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...

and

NATO The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO ; , OTAN), also called the North Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental organization, intergovernmental Transnationalism, transnational military alliance of 32 Member states of NATO, member s ...

, were preparing to reduce their military presence in Afghanistan. This transition prompted Afghanistan to seek stronger bilateral partnerships to ensure its long-term security and development. The Strategic Partnership Agreement with India reflected both countries' mutual interest in stability and development, as well as India's desire to play a greater role in Afghanistan's future.

Provisions

The Afghanistan–India Strategic Partnership Agreement included several major components to consolidate the

Afghanistan–India relations Afghanistan and India had been historical neighbors when India was under British colonial rule and have since shared cultural ties through Bollywood and cricket. The Republic of India was the only South Asian country to recognize the Soviet-bac ...

and bilateral ties in particular. 1. Security Cooperation: India committed to assisting Afghanistan in enhancing its security capabilities by providing training for Afghan security personnel, particularly the

Afghan National Army The Islamic National Army (, ), also referred to as the Islamic Emirate Army and the Afghan Army, is the army, land force branch of the Afghan Armed Forces. The roots of an army in Afghanistan can be traced back to the early 18th century when th ...

(ANA) and

police force The police are a constituted body of people empowered by a state with the aim of enforcing the law and protecting the public order as well as the public itself. This commonly includes ensuring the safety, health, and possessions of citizen ...

s. While the agreement did not include direct military involvement, it laid the groundwork for security collaboration, aimed at ensuring Afghanistan could protect itself from internal and external threats. 2. Economic cooperation: The agreement aimed to boost

trade Trade involves the transfer of goods and services from one person or entity to another, often in exchange for money. Economists refer to a system or network that allows trade as a market. Traders generally negotiate through a medium of cr ...

and

investment Investment is traditionally defined as the "commitment of resources into something expected to gain value over time". If an investment involves money, then it can be defined as a "commitment of money to receive more money later". From a broade ...

between the two nations, focusing on improving infrastructure and connectivity. India invested heavily in Afghanistan's transportation and energy sectors, building projects like the Salma Dam (renamed the

Afghan-India Friendship Dam The Salma Dam, officially named Afghan-India Friendship Dam, is an embankment dam located on the Hari River in Chishti Sharif District of Herat Province in western Afghanistan. It has a hydroelectric power station that produces 42 MW of electri ...

) and the Zaranj-Delaram Highway, which connects Afghanistan to Iran's

Chabahar Port Chabahar Port () is a seaport located in Chabahar in southeastern Iran, on the Gulf of Oman. It serves as Iran's only oceanic port, and consists of two separate ports named ''Shahid Kalantari'' and ''Shahid Beheshti'', each of which has five ber ...

, facilitating Afghan trade with India bypassing Pakistan. 3. Developmental assistance: A significant portion of the agreement focused on India's continued support for Afghanistan's

socio-economic Economics () is a behavioral science that studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services. Economics focuses on the behaviour and interactions of economic agents and how economies work. Microeconomics analys ...

development. This included scholarships for Afghan students to study in Indian universities, vocational training programs, and technical assistance in various fields such as

healthcare Health care, or healthcare, is the improvement or maintenance of health via the preventive healthcare, prevention, diagnosis, therapy, treatment, wikt:amelioration, amelioration or cure of disease, illness, injury, and other disability, physic ...

information technology Information technology (IT) is a set of related fields within information and communications technology (ICT), that encompass computer systems, software, programming languages, data processing, data and information processing, and storage. Inf ...

, and governance. 4. Social, cultural, and civil society engagement: India and Afghanistan have a rich shared cultural history, and the agreement sought to enhance people-to-people ties through initiatives promoting cultural exchanges, media

collaboration Collaboration (from Latin ''com-'' "with" + ''laborare'' "to labor", "to work") is the process of two or more people, entities or organizations working together to complete a task or achieve a goal. Collaboration is similar to cooperation. The ...

, and

civil society Civil society can be understood as the "third sector" of society, distinct from government and business, and including the family and the private sphere. 5. Political cooperation: Both nations pledged to work closely to promote democratic governance in Afghanistan and to collaborate on regional and international platforms. India strongly supported an "Afghan-led, Afghan-owned" peace process, emphasizing the need for an inclusive, democratic government in Afghanistan.

Importance

The agreement held significant strategic value for both nations. For India, maintaining a stable, democratic Afghanistan was critical to its security and broader regional ambitions, particularly in countering the influence of Pakistan, which India has historically seen as a destabilizing force in Afghanistan. India's investments in Afghanistan were also viewed through the lens of limiting extremist threats and securing its economic interests in

Central Asia Central Asia is a region of Asia consisting of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. The countries as a group are also colloquially referred to as the "-stans" as all have names ending with the Persian language, Pers ...

. For Afghanistan, the agreement provided crucial support during a time of transition and uncertainty. India's non-interventionist approach and emphasis on civilian-led projects were appreciated by the Afghan government, which saw India as a partner that could help strengthen the country's institutions without imposing its own agenda.

Challenges

The implementation of the Strategic Partnership Agreement faced several challenges, particularly due to the deteriorating security situation in Afghanistan. The resurgence of the Taliban and growing instability limited the scope of some initiatives, especially in regions outside the control of the

Afghan government The government of Afghanistan, officially called the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan and informally known as the Taliban government, is the central government of Afghanistan, a unitary state. Under the leadership of the Taliban, the government is ...

. Additionally, Pakistan viewed India's increasing involvement in Afghanistan with concern, seeing it as a potential challenge to regional dynamics and balance. Pakistan accused India of using its presence in Afghanistan to foment unrest in Pakistan's western regions, particularly

Balochistan Balochistan ( ; , ), also spelled as Baluchistan or Baluchestan, is a historical region in West and South Asia, located in the Iranian plateau's far southeast and bordering the Indian Plate and the Arabian Sea coastline. This arid region o ...

, claims that India has denied. The rivalry between the two nations played out through

proxy conflict Proxy may refer to: Arts, entertainment and media Fictional entities * Proxy, a mysterious humanoid lifeform in the anime ''Ergo Proxy'' * PROXY, a holodroid featured in ''Star Wars: The Force Unleashed'' * Proxy, the codename of Wendy, Marvin ...

s in Afghanistan, often undermining the country's stability.

Developments after 2021

The U.S. and NATO withdrawal from Afghanistan in 2021 and the swift takeover by the Taliban altered the geopolitical landscape in which the Strategic Partnership Agreement operated. India, along with many other countries, evacuated its embassy staff from Kabul and halted most development activities in the country. The Taliban's return to power raised uncertainties about the future of India's relationship with Afghanistan, though India has remained cautious in its approach to engaging the Taliban regime. While India has yet to formally recognize the new government, it has provided humanitarian assistance, including

food aid Humanitarian aid is material and logistic assistance, usually in the short-term, to people in need. Among the people in need are the homeless, refugees, and victims of natural disasters, wars, and famines. The primary objective of humanitarian ...

vaccine A vaccine is a biological Dosage form, preparation that provides active acquired immunity to a particular infectious disease, infectious or cancer, malignant disease. The safety and effectiveness of vaccines has been widely studied and verifi ...

s, and

medical supplies A medical device is any device intended to be used for medical purposes. Significant potential for hazards are inherent when using a device for medical purposes and thus medical devices must be proved safe and effective with reasonable assura ...

. The future of the Strategic Partnership Agreement remains uncertain, but India's long-term interests in Afghanistan, especially in terms of regional security and economic cooperation, suggest that it will continue to seek ways to maintain a foothold in Afghan affairs.

Status

Since the Taliban's takeover, the status of the agreement has been uncertain. India halted many diplomatic and cooperative activities. Nevertheless, India has continued to provide

, signaling its ongoing concern for Indo–Afghan relations. Despite this,

military A military, also known collectively as armed forces, is a heavily armed, highly organized force primarily intended for warfare. Militaries are typically authorized and maintained by a sovereign state, with their members identifiable by a d ...

and

security Security is protection from, or resilience against, potential harm (or other unwanted coercion). Beneficiaries (technically referents) of security may be persons and social groups, objects and institutions, ecosystems, or any other entity or ...

cooperation have ceased, and the future of the

strategic partnership A strategic partnership (also see strategic alliance) is a relationship between two commercial enterprises, usually formalized by one or more business contracts. A strategic partnership will usually fall short of a legal partnership entity, agency ...

remains uncertain. The changing political dynamics in Afghanistan have forced both nations to reassess the viability and direction of their bilateral relations under the agreement.

References

{{Hamid Karzai 2011 in international relations India Strategic Partnership Agreement October 2011 in India Bilateral treaties of India India Strategic Partnership Agreement Treaties concluded in 2011 Treaties entered into force in 2011

Strategic Partnership Agreement Strategy (from Greek στρατηγία ''stratēgia'', "troop leadership; office of general, command, generalship") is a general plan to achieve one or more long-term or overall goals under conditions of uncertainty. In the sense of the "art o ...

Hamid Karzai Manmohan Singh New Delhi