
In acid catalysis and base catalysis, a
chemical reaction
A chemical reaction is a process that leads to the chemistry, chemical transformation of one set of chemical substances to another. When chemical reactions occur, the atoms are rearranged and the reaction is accompanied by an Gibbs free energy, ...
is
catalyzed by an
acid
An acid is a molecule or ion capable of either donating a proton (i.e. Hydron, hydrogen cation, H+), known as a Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory, Brønsted–Lowry acid, or forming a covalent bond with an electron pair, known as a Lewis ...
or a
base. By
Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory
The Brønsted–Lowry theory (also called proton theory of acids and bases) is an acid–base reaction theory which was developed independently in 1923 by physical chemists Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted (in Denmark) and Thomas Martin Lowry (in ...
, the acid is the proton (
hydrogen ion
A hydrogen ion is created when a hydrogen atom loses or gains an electron. A positively charged hydrogen ion (or proton) can readily combine with other particles and therefore is only seen isolated when it is in a gaseous state or a nearly particl ...
, H
+) donor and the base is the proton acceptor. Typical reactions catalyzed by proton transfer are
esterification
In chemistry, an ester is a compound derived from an acid (either organic or inorganic) in which the hydrogen atom (H) of at least one acidic hydroxyl group () of that acid is replaced by an organyl group (R). These compounds contain a distin ...
s and
aldol reaction
The aldol reaction (aldol addition) is a Chemical reaction, reaction in organic chemistry that combines two Carbonyl group, carbonyl compounds (e.g. aldehydes or ketones) to form a new β-hydroxy carbonyl compound. Its simplest form might invol ...
s. In these reactions, the
conjugate acid
A conjugate acid, within the Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory, is a chemical compound formed when an acid gives a proton () to a base—in other words, it is a base with a hydrogen ion added to it, as it loses a hydrogen ion in the rever ...
of the
carbonyl
In organic chemistry, a carbonyl group is a functional group with the formula , composed of a carbon atom double bond, double-bonded to an oxygen atom, and it is divalent at the C atom. It is common to several classes of organic compounds (such a ...
group is a better
electrophile
In chemistry, an electrophile is a chemical species that forms bonds with nucleophiles by accepting an electron pair. Because electrophiles accept electrons, they are Lewis acids. Most electrophiles are positively Electric charge, charged, have an ...
than the neutral carbonyl group itself. Depending on the chemical species that act as the acid or base, catalytic mechanisms can be classified as either specific catalysis and general catalysis. Many
enzyme
An enzyme () is a protein that acts as a biological catalyst by accelerating chemical reactions. The molecules upon which enzymes may act are called substrate (chemistry), substrates, and the enzyme converts the substrates into different mol ...
s operate by general catalysis.
Applications and examples
Brønsted acids
Acid catalysis is mainly used for
organic chemical reactions. Many acids can function as sources for the protons. Acid used for acid catalysis include
hydrofluoric acid
Hydrofluoric acid is a solution of hydrogen fluoride (HF) in water. Solutions of HF are colorless, acidic and highly corrosive. A common concentration is 49% (48–52%) but there are also stronger solutions (e.g. 70%) and pure HF has a boiling p ...
(in the
alkylation process),
phosphoric acid
Phosphoric acid (orthophosphoric acid, monophosphoric acid or phosphoric(V) acid) is a colorless, odorless phosphorus-containing solid, and inorganic compound with the chemical formula . It is commonly encountered as an 85% aqueous solution, ...
,
toluenesulfonic acid,
polystyrene sulfonate
Polystyrene sulfonates are a group of medications used to treat high blood potassium. Effects generally take hours to days. They are also used to remove potassium, calcium, and sodium from solutions in technical applications.
Common side effec ...
,
heteropoly acid
The heteropolymetalates are a subset of the polyoxometalates, which consist of three or more transition metal oxyanions linked together by shared oxygen atoms to form a closed 3-dimensional molecular framework. In contrast to isopolymetalates, wh ...
s,
zeolite
Zeolites are a group of several microporous, crystalline aluminosilicate minerals commonly used as commercial adsorbents and catalysts. They mainly consist of silicon, aluminium, oxygen, and have the general formula ・y where is either a meta ...
s.
Strong acids catalyze the hydrolysis and
transesterification
Transesterification is the process of exchanging the organic functional group R″ of an ester with the organic group R' of an alcohol. These reactions are often catalyzed by the addition of an acid or base catalyst. Strong acids catalyze the r ...
of
ester
In chemistry, an ester is a compound derived from an acid (either organic or inorganic) in which the hydrogen atom (H) of at least one acidic hydroxyl group () of that acid is replaced by an organyl group (R). These compounds contain a distin ...
s, e.g. for processing fats into
biodiesel
Biodiesel is a renewable biofuel, a form of diesel fuel, derived from biological sources like vegetable oils, animal fats, or recycled greases, and consisting of long-chain fatty acid esters. It is typically made from fats.
The roots of bi ...
. In terms of mechanism, the carbonyl oxygen is susceptible to protonation, which enhances the electrophilicity at the carbonyl carbon.
Solid acid catalysts

In industrial scale chemistry, many processes are catalysed by "solid acids". Solid acids do not dissolve in the reaction medium. Well known examples include these oxides, which function as Lewis acids: silico-aluminates (
zeolite
Zeolites are a group of several microporous, crystalline aluminosilicate minerals commonly used as commercial adsorbents and catalysts. They mainly consist of silicon, aluminium, oxygen, and have the general formula ・y where is either a meta ...
s,
alumina
Aluminium oxide (or aluminium(III) oxide) is a chemical compound of aluminium and oxygen with the chemical formula . It is the most commonly occurring of several aluminium oxides, and specifically identified as aluminium oxide. It is commonly ...
, silico-alumino-phosphate), sulfated zirconia, and many transition metal
oxide
An oxide () is a chemical compound containing at least one oxygen atom and one other element in its chemical formula. "Oxide" itself is the dianion (anion bearing a net charge of −2) of oxygen, an O2− ion with oxygen in the oxidation st ...
s (titania, zirconia, niobia, and more). Such acids are used in
cracking
Cracking may refer to:
* Cracking, the formation of a fracture or partial fracture in a solid material studied as fracture mechanics
** Performing a sternotomy
* Fluid catalytic cracking, a catalytic process widely used in oil refineries for crac ...
. Many solid Brønsted acids are also employed industrially, including
sulfonated polystyrene
In organic chemistry, aromatic sulfonation is a reaction in which a hydrogen atom on an arene is replaced by a sulfonic acid () group. Together with nitration and chlorination, aromatic sulfonation is a widely used electrophilic aromatic ...
, sulfonated carbon, solid
phosphoric acid
Phosphoric acid (orthophosphoric acid, monophosphoric acid or phosphoric(V) acid) is a colorless, odorless phosphorus-containing solid, and inorganic compound with the chemical formula . It is commonly encountered as an 85% aqueous solution, ...
,
niobic acid
Niobium pentoxide is the inorganic compound with the chemical formula, formula Niobium, Nb2oxide, O5. A colorless, insoluble, and fairly unreactive solid, it is the most widespread precursor for other compounds and materials containing niobium. It ...
, and hetero
polyoxometallate
In chemistry, a polyoxometalate (abbreviated POM) is a polyatomic ion, usually an anion, that consists of three or more transition metal oxyanions linked together by shared oxygen atoms to form closed 3-dimensional frameworks. The metal atoms are ...
s.
A particularly large scale application is
alkylation Alkylation is a chemical reaction that entails transfer of an alkyl group. The alkyl group may be transferred as an alkyl carbocation, a free radical, a carbanion, or a carbene (or their equivalents). Alkylating agents are reagents for effecting al ...
, e.g., the combination of benzene and ethylene to give
ethylbenzene
Ethylbenzene is an organic compound with the formula . It is a highly flammable, colorless liquid with an odor similar to that of gasoline. This monocyclic aromatic hydrocarbon is important in the petrochemical industry as a reaction intermediat ...
. Another major application is the rearrangement of
cyclohexanone oxime to
caprolactam
Caprolactam (CPL) is an organic compound with the chemical formula, formula (CH2)5C(O)NH. This colourless solid is a lactam (a cyclic amide) of caproic acid. Global demand for this compound is approximately five million tons per year, and the vast ...
. Many alkyl
amine
In chemistry, amines (, ) are organic compounds that contain carbon-nitrogen bonds. Amines are formed when one or more hydrogen atoms in ammonia are replaced by alkyl or aryl groups. The nitrogen atom in an amine possesses a lone pair of elec ...
s are prepared by amination of alcohols, catalyzed by solid acids. In this role, the acid converts, OH
−, a poor leaving group, into a good one. Thus acids are used to convert alcohols into other classes of compounds, such as thiols and amines.
Mechanism
Two kinds of acid catalysis are recognized, specific acid catalysis and general acid catalysis.
Specific catalysis
In specific acid catalysis, protonated solvent is the catalyst. The
reaction rate
The reaction rate or rate of reaction is the speed at which a chemical reaction takes place, defined as proportional to the increase in the concentration of a product per unit time and to the decrease in the concentration of a reactant per u ...
is proportional to the
concentration
In chemistry, concentration is the abundance of a constituent divided by the total volume of a mixture. Several types of mathematical description can be distinguished: '' mass concentration'', '' molar concentration'', '' number concentration'', ...
of the protonated solvent molecules SH
+. The acid catalyst itself (AH) only contributes to the rate acceleration by shifting the
chemical equilibrium
In a chemical reaction, chemical equilibrium is the state in which both the Reagent, reactants and Product (chemistry), products are present in concentrations which have no further tendency to change with time, so that there is no observable chan ...
between solvent S and AH in favor of the SH
+ species. This kind of catalysis is common for strong acids in polar solvents, such as water.
:
S + AH -> SH+ + A-
For example, in an aqueous
buffer solution
A buffer solution is a solution where the pH does not change significantly on dilution or if an acid or base is added at constant temperature. Its pH changes very little when a small amount of strong acid or base is added to it. Buffer solution ...
the reaction rate for reactants R depends on the
pH of the system but not on the
concentration
In chemistry, concentration is the abundance of a constituent divided by the total volume of a mixture. Several types of mathematical description can be distinguished: '' mass concentration'', '' molar concentration'', '' number concentration'', ...
s of different acids.
:
This type of
chemical kinetics
Chemical kinetics, also known as reaction kinetics, is the branch of physical chemistry that is concerned with understanding the rates of chemical reactions. It is different from chemical thermodynamics, which deals with the direction in which a ...
is observed when reactant R
1 is in a fast equilibrium with its conjugate acid R
1H
+ which proceeds to react slowly with R
2 to the reaction product; for example, in the acid catalysed
aldol reaction
The aldol reaction (aldol addition) is a Chemical reaction, reaction in organic chemistry that combines two Carbonyl group, carbonyl compounds (e.g. aldehydes or ketones) to form a new β-hydroxy carbonyl compound. Its simplest form might invol ...
.
General catalysis
In general acid catalysis all species capable of donating protons contribute to
reaction rate
The reaction rate or rate of reaction is the speed at which a chemical reaction takes place, defined as proportional to the increase in the concentration of a product per unit time and to the decrease in the concentration of a reactant per u ...
acceleration.
[
] The strongest acids are most effective. Reactions in which proton transfer is rate-determining exhibit general acid catalysis, for example
diazonium coupling reactions.
:
When keeping the pH at a constant level but changing the buffer concentration a change in rate signals a general acid catalysis. A constant rate is evidence for a specific acid catalyst. When reactions are conducted in nonpolar media, this kind of catalysis is important because the acid is often not ionized.
Enzymes catalyze reactions using general-acid and general-base catalysis.
References
{{Reflist
Chemical kinetics
Catalysis