Tāj al-Dīn Abū al-Fath Muhammad ibn `Abd al-Karīm ash-Shahrastānī (; 1086–1153 CE), also known as Muhammad al-Shahrastānī, was an influential

Persian Persian may refer to: * People and things from Iran, historically called ''Persia'' in the English language ** Persians, the majority ethnic group in Iran, not to be conflated with the Iranic peoples ** Persian language, an Iranian language of the ...

historian of religions, a

historiographer Historiography is the study of the methods used by historians in developing history as an academic discipline. By extension, the term "historiography" is any body of historical work on a particular subject. The historiography of a specific to ...

Islamic scholar In Islam, the ''ulama'' ( ; also spelled ''ulema''; ; singular ; feminine singular , plural ) are scholars of Islamic doctrine and law. They are considered the guardians, transmitters, and interpreters of religious knowledge in Islam. "Ulama ...

, philosopher and theologian. His book, ''

Kitab al–Milal wa al-Nihal ''Kitāb al–Milal wa al-Nihal'' (Arabic: كتاب الملل والنحل, ''The Book of Sects and Creeds''), written by the Islamic scholar Muhammad al-Shahrastani (d. 1153 CE), is a non-polemical study of religious communities and philosoph ...

'' (lit. ''The Book of Sects and Creeds'') was one of the pioneers in developing an objective and philosophical approach to the study of religions.

Life

Very few things are known about al-Shahrastānī's life. He was born in 1086 CE A.H., in the town of Shahristān, (

Khorasan KhorasanDabeersiaghi, Commentary on Safarnâma-e Nâsir Khusraw, 6th Ed. Tehran, Zavvâr: 1375 (Solar Hijri Calendar) 235–236 (; , ) is a historical eastern region in the Iranian Plateau in West and Central Asia that encompasses western and no ...

, province of Persia) where he acquired his early traditional education. Later, he was sent to Nīshāpūr where he studied under different masters who were all disciples of the Ash`ari theologian

al-Juwaynī Dhia' ul-Dīn 'Abd al-Malik ibn Yūsuf al-Juwaynī al-Shafi'ī (, 17 February 102820 August 1085; 419–478 AH) was a Persian Sunni scholar famous for being the foremost leading jurisconsult, legal theoretician and Islamic theologian of his t ...

(d. 1085). At the age of thirty, al-Shahrastānī went to

Baghdad Baghdad ( or ; , ) is the capital and List of largest cities of Iraq, largest city of Iraq, located along the Tigris in the central part of the country. With a population exceeding 7 million, it ranks among the List of largest cities in the A ...

to pursue theological studies and taught for three years at the prestigious Ash`ari school, al-Nizāmiyya. Afterwards, he returned to

Persia Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI) and also known as Persia, is a country in West Asia. It borders Iraq to the west, Turkey, Azerbaijan, and Armenia to the northwest, the Caspian Sea to the north, Turkmenistan to the nort ...

where he worked as ''Nā’ib'' (Deputy) of the chancellery for

Sanjar Sanjar (, ; full name: ''Muizz ad-Dunya wa ad-Din Adud ad-Dawlah Abul-Harith Ahmad Sanjar ibn Malik-Shah'') (6 November 1086 – 8 May 1157) was the Seljuq ruler of Khorasan from 1097 until 1118,Saljūq ruler of

Khurāsān KhorasanDabeersiaghi, Commentary on Safarnâma-e Nâsir Khusraw, 6th Ed. Tehran, Zavvâr: 1375 (Solar Hijri Calendar) 235–236 (; , ) is a historical eastern region in the Iranian Plateau in West and Central Asia that encompasses western and no ...

. At the end of his life, al-Shahrastānī went back to live in his native town, where he died in the year 1153.

Works

Al-Shahrastani distinguished himself by his desire to describe in the most objective way the universal religious history of humanity. This is reflected in his ''

Kitab al-Milal wa al-Nihal ''Kitāb al–Milal wa al-Nihal'' (Arabic: كتاب الملل والنحل, ''The Book of Sects and Creeds''), written by the Islamic scholar Muhammad al-Shahrastani (d. 1153 CE), is a non-polemical study of religious communities and philosop ...

'' (The Book of Sects and Creeds), a monumental work, which presents the doctrinal points of view of all the religions and philosophies which existed up to his time. The book was one of the earliest systematic studies of religion, and is noted for its non-polemical style and scientific approach. A French translation of the book by Gimaret, Monnot and Jolivet was sponsored by

UNESCO The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO ) is a List of specialized agencies of the United Nations, specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) with the aim of promoting world peace and International secur ...

(''Livre des religions et des sectes.'' Peeters: 1986, 1993). Al-Shahrastani's philosophical and theological thoughts manifested in his other major works, which include: * The ''Nihāyat al-aqdām fī 'ilm al-kalām'' (The End of Steps in the Science of Theology) presents different theological discussions and shows the limits of Muslim theology (''

kalam ''Ilm al-kalam'' or ''ilm al-lahut'', often shortened to ''kalam'', is the scholastic, speculative, or rational study of Islamic theology ('' aqida''). It can also be defined as the science that studies the fundamental doctrines of Islamic fai ...

''). * The ''Majlis'' is a discourse, written during the mature period of his life, delivered to a

Twelver Twelver Shi'ism (), also known as Imamism () or Ithna Ashari, is the Islamic schools and branches, largest branch of Shia Islam, Shi'a Islam, comprising about 90% of all Shi'a Muslims. The term ''Twelver'' refers to its adherents' belief in twel ...

Shi`ite audience. * The ''Musara`at al-Falasifa'' (The Struggle with Philosophers) criticizes

Ibn Sina Ibn Sina ( – 22 June 1037), commonly known in the West as Avicenna ( ), was a preeminent philosopher and physician of the Muslim world, flourishing during the Islamic Golden Age, serving in the courts of various Iranian peoples, Iranian ...

(Avicenna)’s doctrines by emphasizing some peculiar

Isma'ili Ismailism () is a branch of Shia Islam. The Isma'ili () get their name from their acceptance of Imam Isma'il ibn Jafar as the appointed spiritual successor (Imamate in Nizari doctrine, imām) to Ja'far al-Sadiq, wherein they differ from the ...

arguments on the division of beings. * The ''Mafatih al-Asrar wa-masabih al-abrar'' (The Keys of the Mysteries and the Lamps of the Righteous) introduces the

Qur’an The Quran, also Romanization, romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a Waḥy, revelation directly from God in Islam, God (''Allah, Allāh''). It is organized in 114 chapters (, ) which ...

and gives a complete commentary on the first two chapters of the Qur’an.

Religious belief

Although self-identified as an

Ash'ari Ash'arism (; ) is a school of theology in Sunni Islam named after Abu al-Hasan al-Ash'ari, a Shāfiʿī jurist, reformer (''mujaddid''), and scholastic theologian, in the 9th–10th century. It established an orthodox guideline, based on ...

in terms of theology and a

Shafi’i The Shafi'i school or Shafi'i Madhhab () or Shafi'i is one of the four major schools of fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence), belonging to the Ahl al-Hadith tradition within Sunni Islam. It was founded by the Muslim scholar, jurist, and traditionist al ...

in terms of law, as can be seen in his books, ''

Al-Milal wa al-Nihal ''Kitāb al–Milal wa al-Nihal'' (Arabic: كتاب الملل والنحل, ''The Book of Sects and Creeds''), written by the Islamic scholar Muhammad al-Shahrastani (d. 1153 CE), is a non-polemical study of religious communities and philosop ...

'', and '' Nihayat al-Iqdam fi 'Ilm al-Kalam, a'' few of his contemporaries accused him of covertly being an

, and modern scholars believe that he was actually an Isma’ili practicing

taqiya In Islam, ''taqiyya'' ()R. STROTHMANN, MOKTAR DJEBLI. Encyclopedia of Islam, 2nd ed, Brill. "TAKIYYA", vol. 10, p. 134. Quote: "TAKIYYA "prudence, fear" ... denotes dispensing with the ordinances of religion in cases of constraint of preaching ...

, or dissimulation, based on statements throughout his writings that correspond strongly with Isma’ili mysticism and its central doctrine of the

Imamate The term imamate or ''imamah'' (, ''imāmah'') means "leadership" and refers to the office of an ''imam'' or a Muslim theocratic state ruled by an ''imam''. Theology *Imamate in Shia doctrine, the doctrine of the leadership of the Muslim commu ...

. Al-Shahrastani was amongst those attracted by the "new preaching" (da'wah jadidah) which Hasan-i Sabbāh, the Isma'ili

da'i A da'i (, ) is generally someone who engages in Dawah, the act of inviting people to Islam. See also * Dawah * Da'i al-Mutlaq, 'the absolute (unrestricted) missionary' * Hujja * List of converts to Islam The following is a list of notabl ...

and founder of the medieval

Nizari Isma'ili state The Nizari state (the Alamut state) was a Nizari Isma'ili Shia state founded by Hassan-i Sabbah after he took control of the Alamut Castle in 1090 AD, which marked the beginning of an era of Ismailism known as the "Alamut period". Their people w ...

, initiated. This preaching sought to spread the idea that humanity is always in need of infallible and divine teaching, which can only be provided by a divinely appointed guide. Al-Shahrastani tried to keep this a secret, but it was revealed by his student Al-Sam'ani. His works include a Quranic commentary that is infused with Isma’ili terminology, in which he hinted at his conversion by a "pious servant of God" who taught him how to find the esoteric ( batin) meaning of the Quran. In his Kitab Al-musara'ah (Book of the wrestling match), al-Shahrastani criticizes Avicenna's belief that God is the involuntary necessitating cause of the world, and he also provides support for the Ismaili thesis that God is beyond being and nonbeing.

Christian commentary

In ''Kitab al-Milal wa al-Nihal'', al-Shahrastani records a portrayal of Christianity very close to the orthodox tenets while continuing the Islamic narrative:

“The Christians. (They are) the community (''
umma Umma () in modern Dhi Qar Province in Iraq, was an ancient city in Sumer. There is some scholarly debate about the Sumerian and Akkadian names for this site. Traditionally, Umma was identified with Tell Jokha. More recently it has been sugges ...
'') of the Christ,
Jesus Jesus (AD 30 or 33), also referred to as Jesus Christ, Jesus of Nazareth, and many Names and titles of Jesus in the New Testament, other names and titles, was a 1st-century Jewish preacher and religious leader. He is the Jesus in Chris ...
, son of Mary (peace upon him). He it is who was truly sent (as prophet; ''mab'uth'') after Moses (peace upon him), and who was announced in the Torah. To him were (granted) manifest signs and notable evidences, such as the reviving of the dead and the curing of the blind and the leper. His very nature and innate disposition (''
fitra or (; ALA-LC: ) is an Arabic word that means 'original disposition', 'natural constitution' or 'innate nature'. The concept somewhat resembles natural order in philosophy, although there are considerable differences as well. In Islam, is the ...
'') are a perfect sign of his truthfulness; that is, his coming without previous seed and his speaking without prior teaching. For all the (other) prophets the arrival of their revelation was at (the age of) forty years, but revelation came to him when he was made to speak in the cradle, and revelation came to him when he conveyed (the divine message) at (the age of) thirty. The duration of his (prophetic) mission (''
da'wa ' (, , "invitation", also spelt , , , or ) is the act of inviting people to Islam. The plural is () or (). Preachers who engage in dawah are known as da'i. Etymology literally means "issuing a summons" or "making an invitation". Gramma ...
'') was three years and three months and three days."

Al-Shahrastani also explains the differences between Christians in ''Kitab al-Milal wa al-Nihal'' regarding the incarnation (''tajassud''):

"They affirmed that God has three hypostases (''aqanim''). They said that the Creator (may he be exalted) is one substance (''jawhar''), meaning by this what is self-subsistent (''al-qa'im bi-n-nafs''), not (what is characterized by) spatial location and physical magnitude; and he is one in substantiality, three in hypostaticity (''uqnumiyya''). By the hypostases they mean the attributes (''sifat''), such as existence, life and knowledge, and the father, the son and the holy spirit ('' ruh al-qudus''). The (hypostasis of) knowledge clothes itself and was incarnated, but not the other hypostases."Watt 1991, p. 69.
/ref>

Notes

Bibliography

; Works and studies in English * al-Shahrastānī, ''The Summa philosophiae'', (''Kitāb Nihāyatu ʼl-Iqdām fī ʽIlmi ʼl –Kalām''), edited with a translation by

Alfred Guillaume Alfred Guillaume (8 November 1888 – 30 November 1965) was a British Christian Arabist, scholar of the Hebrew Bible / Old Testament and Islam. Career Guillaume was born in Edmonton, Middlesex, the son of Alfred Guillaume. He took up Arabi ...

, London, Oxford University Press 1934. * Muhammad b. 'Abd al-Karim Shahrastani, ''Muslim Sects and Divisions. The Section on Muslim Sects in Kitab al-Milal wa 'l-Nibal'', translated by A. K.Kazi and J. G.Flynn, London, Kegan Paul International 1984 (reprint New York, Routledge 2013). * al-Shahrastānī, ''Struggling with the Philosopher: A Refutation of Avicenna's Metaphysics'', translation by Wilferd Madelung and Toby Mayer of ''Kitāb Muṣāraʿat al-falāsifa'', London, Tauris, 2001. * al-Shahrastānī,
Keys to the Arcana: Shahrastānī's Esoteric Commentary on the Qurʼan: A Translation of the Commentary on Sūrat al-Fātiḥa
', by Toby Mayer; with the Arabic text reproduced from the edition by M.A. Adharshab, New York, Oxford University Press, 2009. * Bruce B. Lawrence, ''Shahrastani on the Indian Religions'', Preface by Franz Rosenthal, The Hague, Mouton, 1976 (with the translation of Shahrastânï's ''Kitäb al-milal wan-nihal'' Part II, Book III, Section Β 'Ära al-hind'l, The Views of the Indians, pp. 33–62). * Steigerwald, Diana, "The Divine Word (Kalima) in Shahrastani's Majlis." In ''Studies in Religion/Sciences religieuses'', vol. 25.3, 1996, pp. 335–52. * Steigerwald, Diana, "Al-Shahrastānī’s Contribution to Medieval Islamic Thought." In Todd Lawson (ed.), ''Reason and Inspiration in Islam: Theology, Philosophy and Mysticism in Muslim Thought. Essays in Honor of Hermann Landolt''. London: I.B. Tauris, 2005, pp. 262–273. ; Works and studies in French * Al-Shahrastānī, ''Livre des religions et des sectes'', traduction par Daniel Gimaret, Guy Monnot, Jean Jolivet, Louvain, Peeters et UNESCO, 1986–1993 (two volumes) * Al-Shahrastānī, ''Majlis: Discours sur l'ordre et la création''. (''Majlis-i maktub-i Shahrastāni-i munʿaqid dar Khwārazm''. Edited by Muḥammad Riżā R. Jalāli Naʾini) traduction française de Diane Steigerwald), Sainte-Foy (Québec): Les Presses de l'Université Laval 1999. * Jolivet, Jean, "Al-Shahrastânî critique d'Avicenne dans la lutte contre les philosophes (quelques aspects)," ''Arabic Sciences and Philosophy'', 2000, vol. 10, pp. 275–292. * Monnot, Guy, "Islam: exégèse coranique." ''Annuaire de l'École Pratique des Hautes Études. Section des sciences religieuses'', sur Shahrastani: ** "L'Introduction de Shahrastâni à son commentaire coranique inédit", Tome 92, 1983–1984. 1983. pp. 305–316; ** "La Sourate d'ouverture dans le commentaire coranique inédit de Shahrastânï", Tome 93, 1984–1985. 1984. pp. 293–303; ** "Le commentaire coranique inédit de Shahrastânî (suite)", Tome 94, 1985–1986. 1985. pp. 347–351; ** "La Sourate de la Vache dans le commentaire coranique inédit de Shahrastânî", Tome 95, 1986–1987. 1986. pp. 253–259; ** "« Les clefs des mystères » de Shahrastânî", Tome 96, 1987–1988. 1987. pp. 237–243; ** "« Les clefs des mystères > de Sharastânî (suite)", Tome 97, 1988–1989. 1988. pp. 249–255. * Monnot, Guy, 1996 «Shahrastani», su: ''Encyclopédie de l'islam'', 1996, vol. 9, pp. 220–22. * Monnot, Guy, 1999 Book review of ''La pensée philosophique et théologique de Shahrastani (m. 548/1153) '' by Diane Steigerwald in: ''Bulletin critique des annales islamologiques'', vol. 15, pp. 79–81. * Monnot, Guy, 2001 Book review of ''Majlis-i maktub-i Shahrastani-i mun'aqid dar Khwarazm''. Ed. Muhammad Rida R. Jalali Na'ini and translated into French by Diane Steigerwald in ''Majlis: Discours sur l'ordre et la création''. Sainte-Foy (Québec): Les Presses de l'Université Laval in ''Bulletin critique des annales islamologiques'', vol. 17. * Steigerwald, Diana, 1995 "L'Ordre (Amr) et la création (khalq) chez Shahrastani." ''Folia Orientalia'', vol. 31, pp. 163–75. * Steigerwald, Diana, 1997 ''La pensée philosophique et théologique de Shahrastani (m. 548/1153)''. Sainte-Foy (Québec): Les Presses de l'Université Laval. * Steigerwald, Diana, 1998 "La dissimulation (''taqiyya'') de la foi dans le shi'isme ismaélien." ''Studies in Religion/Sciences religieuses'', vol. 27.1, pp. 39–59. ; Works and studies in German * Al-Shahrastānī, Abū al-Fatḥ Ibn ʿAbd al-Karīm, ''Religionspartheien und Philosophen-Schulen'', traduzione di ''Kitāb al-Milal wa al-Niḥal'' a cura di Theodor Haarbrücker, Halle, Schwetschke, 1850–1851 (due volumi). * Madelung, Wilferd, "Ash-Shahrastanis Streitschrift gegen Avicenna und ihre Widerlegung durch Nasir ad-din at-Tusi." Akten des VII. Kongresses für Arabistik und Islamwissenschaft, Abhandlungen der Akademie des Wissenschaften in Göttingen, 1976, vol. 98, pp. 250–9. ; Works in Arabic * Al-Shahrastānī, Abū al-Fatḥ Ibn ʿAbd al-Karīm, 1923 ''Kitāb al-Milal wa al-Niḥal''. Ed. William Cureton in ''Books of Religions and Philosophical Sects''. 2 vols.

Leipzig Leipzig (, ; ; Upper Saxon: ; ) is the most populous city in the States of Germany, German state of Saxony. The city has a population of 628,718 inhabitants as of 2023. It is the List of cities in Germany by population, eighth-largest city in Ge ...

: Otto Harrassowitz (reprint of the edition of London 1846). * Danish-Pazhuh, Muhammad Taqi, "Dāʿi al-duʿāt Taj al-din-i Shahrastana." ''Nama-yi astan-i quds'', 1968. vol. 7, pp. 77–80. * Danish-Pazhuh, Muhammad Taqi, "Dāʿi al-duʿāt Taj al-din-i Shahrastana." ''Nama-yi astan-i quds'', 1969, vol. 8, pp. 61–71. * Naʿini, Jalāli, 1964 ''Sharh-i Ḥāl wa Athar-i Ḥujjat al-Ḥaqq Abu al-Fatḥ Muḥammad b. ʿAbd al-Karim b. Aḥmad Shahrastāni''. Tehran. * al-Nuʿmān, Abū Ḥanīfa, 1956 ''Al-Risāla al-Mudhhiba''. In: ''Khams Rasāʾil Ismāʿīliyya''. Ed. ʿĀrif Tāmir, Beirut. * Al-Shahrastānī, Abū al-Fatḥ Ibn ʿAbd al-Karīm, 1366-1375/1947-1955 ''Kitāb al-Milal wa al-Niḥal''. Ed. Muḥammad Fatḥ Allāh Badrān, 2 vols. Cairo. * Al-Shahrastānī, Abū al-Fatḥ Ibn ʿAbd al-Karīm, 1396/1976 ''Muṣāraʿat al-falāsifa''. Ed. Suhayr M. Mukhtār. Cairo. * Al-Shahrastānī, Abū al-Fatḥ Ibn ʿAbd al-Karīm, 1989 ''Mafātīḥ al-asrār wa-masābīḥ al-abrār''. Tehran.

References

;Books *

External links

Al-Shahrastani
at the

Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy The ''Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (''IEP'') is a scholarly online encyclopedia with around 900 articles about philosophy, philosophers, and related topics. The IEP publishes only peer review, peer-reviewed and blind-refereed original p ...

Al-Shahrastani (Islamic Philosophy Online)
*

* Digitalisations (of Haarbrücker's German translation 1850–51), at Google Books: v.1

v. 1–2

{{DEFAULTSORT:Shahrastani Asharis Shafi'is Sunni imams Sunni Muslim scholars of Islam 12th-century Muslim theologians Medieval Islamic philosophers 12th-century Iranian philosophers 1086 births 1153 deaths