In 1929 there was an unsuccessful attempt to end the

dictatorship of Primo de Rivera General Miguel Primo de Rivera's dictatorship over Spain began with a coup on 13 September 1923 and ended with his resignation on 28 January 1930. It took place during the wider reign of King Alfonso XIII. In establishing his dictatorship, ...

, which had been established through another coup d'état. It took place in January 1929, with the

conservative Conservatism is a cultural, social, and political philosophy and ideology that seeks to promote and preserve traditional institutions, customs, and values. The central tenets of conservatism may vary in relation to the culture and civiliza ...

politician

José Sánchez Guerra José is a predominantly Spanish and Portuguese form of the given name Joseph. While spelled alike, this name is pronounced very differently in each of the two languages: Spanish ; Portuguese (or ). In French, the name ''José'', pronounced , ...

as its main instigator.

Background

In the second phase of the Primo de Rivera dictatorship, known as the Civil Directory (1925-1930), several generals and officers in the army expressed their dissatisfaction with his policies. The first conflict arose within the

Artillery Artillery consists of ranged weapons that launch Ammunition, munitions far beyond the range and power of infantry firearms. Early artillery development focused on the ability to breach defensive walls and fortifications during sieges, and l ...

Corps, which strongly disagreed with the open promotion system (meaning promotions were based not only on seniority but also on merits) implemented by the Dictatorship. Primo de Rivera's response was to first suspend all officers in the corps in September 1926 and later dissolve it entirely. King

Alfonso XIII Alfonso XIII (Spanish language, Spanish: ''Alfonso León Fernando María Jaime Isidro Pascual Antonio de Borbón y Habsburgo-Lorena''; French language, French: ''Alphonse Léon Ferdinand Marie Jacques Isidore Pascal Antoine de Bourbon''; 17 May ...

attempted to mediate in the conflict by proposing a gentlemen's agreement, but Primo de Rivera vehemently opposed it, threatening to resign and reminding the monarch that the army was under his command. The dissolution of the corps garnered solidarity from other military members, despite initially supporting the open promotion system. The final acceptance of the corps' dissolution by the king was seen as collusion between Alfonso XIII and Primo de Rivera by the Artillery Corps. As historian Genoveva García Queipo de Llano noted, "from then on, a significant sector of the army adopted a republican stance". Additionally, "the conflict... further exacerbated the growing distance between the king and Primo de Rivera". The first coup attempt to overthrow the dictatorship was known as the "'' Sanjuanada''" because it was planned for June 24, 1926. Generals

Valeriano Weyler Captain General Valeriano Weyler y Nicolau, 1st Duke of Rubí, 1st Marquess of Tenerife (17September 183820October 1930) was a Spanish Army officer and colonial administrator who served as the Governor-General of the Philippines and the Gover ...

and Francisco Aguilera y Egea, along with prominent figures from the "old politics" such as the

reformist Reformism is a political tendency advocating the reform of an existing system or institution – often a political or religious establishment – as opposed to its abolition and replacement via revolution. Within the socialist movement, ref ...

Melquiades Álvarez, were involved in the conspiracy. A few months later, the " Prats de Molló conspiracy" took place, which was an unsuccessful attempt to invade Spain from the

Roussillon Roussillon ( , , ; , ; ) was a historical province of France that largely corresponded to the County of Roussillon and French Cerdagne, part of the County of Cerdagne of the former Principality of Catalonia. It is part of the region of ' ...

region, led by the Catalan nationalist leader and former military officer

Francesc Macià Francesc Macià i Llussà (; 21 September 1859 – 25 December 1933) was a Catalan politician who served as the 122nd president of the Generalitat of Catalonia, and formerly an officer in the Spanish Army. Politically, Macià evolved from an ...

and his party '' Estat Catalá'', with the collaboration of Catalan anarcho-syndicalist groups from the CNT. As noted by historian Santos Juliá, coup attempts were a novelty that the dictatorship itself had legitimized. It was considered permissible to resort to military force (the traditional ''

pronunciamiento A is a form of military rebellion or coup d'état particularly associated with Spain, Portugal and Ibero-America, especially in the 19th century. Typology The is one category of praetorianism: the practice of military figures acting as pol ...

'') to overthrow a government and change a regime. In this sense, the dictatorship resembled a return to 19th-century politics.

The conspiracy

Among the members of the discredited

political parties A political party is an organization that coordinates candidates to compete in a particular area's elections. It is common for the members of a party to hold similar ideas about politics, and parties may promote specific ideological or p ...

who stood against the Dictatorship, the conservative

stood out. True to his promise, he went into exile from Spain when the

National Consultative Assembly The National Consultative Assembly (), or simply Majles, was the national legislative body of Iran from 1906 to 1979. It was elected by universal suffrage Universal suffrage or universal franchise ensures the right to vote for as many people ...

was convened in September 1927. From his exile, Sánchez Guerra began to promote a civic-military conspiracy aimed at ending the Dictatorship. His contact within Spain was the liberal Miguel Villanueva, who had served as a minister in the last constitutional government of

. Villanueva acted as the treasurer of the conspiracy and directed the self-styled "Revolutionary Central Board," composed of members from both parties of the turn,

conservatives Conservatism is a cultural, social, and political philosophy and ideology that seeks to promote and preserve traditional institutions, customs, and values. The central tenets of conservatism may vary in relation to the culture and civilizati ...

, and liberals. The first meeting of those involved in the conspiracy took place in

Hendaye Hendaye (; Basque: ''Hendaia'',HENDAIA
turn parties," some of whom were former ministers and former presidents of the government, as well as figures from the reformist and republican opposition. Among them were

Joaquín Sánchez de Toca Joaquín or Joaquin is a male given name, the Spanish version of Joachim. Given name * Joaquín (footballer, born 1956) (Joaquín Alonso González), Spanish football midfielder * Joaquín (footballer, born 1981) (Joaquín Sánchez Rodrígue ...

, the

Count of Romanones Count (feminine: countess) is a historical title of nobility in certain European countries, varying in relative status, generally of middling rank in the hierarchy of nobility. Pine, L. G. ''Titles: How the King Became His Majesty''. New York: ...

Manuel García Prieto Manuel may refer to: People * Manuel (name), a given name and surname * Manuel (''Fawlty Towers''), a fictional character from the sitcom ''Fawlty Towers'' * Manuel I Komnenos, emperor of the Byzantine Empire * Manuel I of Portugal, king of Po ...

, Melquíades Álvarez,

Alejandro Lerroux Alejandro Lerroux García (4 March 1864, in La Rambla, Córdoba – 25 June 1949, in Madrid) was a Spanish politician who was the leader of the Radical Republican Party. He served as Prime Minister three times from 1933 to 1935 and held sever ...

Vicente Blasco Ibáñez Vicente Blasco Ibáñez (, 29 January 1867 – 28 January 1928) was a journalist, politician, and a bestselling Spanish novelist in various genres whose most widespread and lasting fame in the English-speaking world is from Hollywood films that ...

, and Santiago Alba Bonifaz. Initially, Sánchez Guerra and Villanueva aimed to return to the 1876 Constitution and form a new government, possibly to be led by a general, likely

Dámaso Berenguer Dámaso Berenguer y Fusté, 1st Count of Xauen (4 August 1873 – 19 May 1953) was a Spanish general and politician. He served as Prime Minister of Spain, Prime Minister during the last thirteen months of the reign of Alfonso XIII. Biography ...

, the head of Alfonso XIII's Military Household. According to historian

Eduardo González Calleja Eduardo González Calleja (born 1962) is a Spanish historian, professor of Contemporary History at the Charles III University of Madrid (UC3M). He is the author of a long list of scholar works dealing with political violence. Biography He was ...

, the choice of Berenguer "can be understood as an indication of the highly probable collusion with the king, whose differences with the dictator, long evident, had intensified following the formation of the Civil Directory, the establishment of the Patriotic Union as the government's party, and the initial steps toward the implementation of a new parliamentary and constitutional system". However, the ultimate goal of the coup would be to convene

Constituent Cortes The Constituent Cortes () is the description of Spain's parliament, the Cortes, when convened as a constituent assembly. In the 20th century, only one Constituent Cortes was officially opened (Cortes are "opened" in accordance with a mediaeval ...

, thereby gaining the support of the republican parties. Sánchez Guerra also attracted the Catalan nationalist parties through

Lluís Companys Lluís Companys i Jover (; 21 June 1882 – 15 October 1940) was a Catalan politician who served as president of Catalonia, Spain from 1934 and during the Spanish Civil War. Companys was a lawyer close to the labour movement and one of the mo ...

, who spearheaded the Revolutionary Committee of Catalonia, which also included members of the CNT. Meanwhile, General Aguilera sought military support, especially among the artillery, due to his conflict with Dictator

Primo de Rivera Primo de Rivera is a Spanish family prominent in politics of the 19th and 20th centuries: *Fernando Primo de Rivera (1831–1921), Spanish politician and soldier *Miguel Primo de Rivera (1870–1930), nephew of Fernando, military officer and dictat ...

. The most valuable support he secured came from the Captain General of Valencia, Alberto Castro Girona. On January 14, 1929, an agreement was reached to establish a ''Revolutionary Committee'' consisting of three members: a military figure (likely General

Eduardo López Ochoa Eduardo López Ochoa y Portoundo (31 January 1877 – 19 August 1936) was a Spanish general, Africanist, and prominent Freemason. He was known for most of his life as a traditional Republican, and conspired against the government of Miguel Prim ...

), a monarchist (Sánchez Guerra himself), and a republican (

, proposed by Santiago Alba). A significant addition to the platform's political program was introduced: the convocation of

would be preceded by the departure of Alfonso XIII from Spain, and a referendum would be held to decide the

form of government A government is the system or group of people governing an organized community, generally a state. In the case of its broad associative definition, government normally consists of legislature, executive, and judiciary. Government is a m ...

, whether monarchy or republic. Starting from January 25, several committee delegates traveled throughout Spain to inform the committed military units —21 Artillery regiments and several Infantry and Aviation units— of the date and time agreed upon for the uprising: between two and six o'clock in the morning on Sunday, January 29.

The attempted coup

According to the plan devised by the conspirators, the coup would commence in

Valencia Valencia ( , ), formally València (), is the capital of the Province of Valencia, province and Autonomous communities of Spain, autonomous community of Valencian Community, the same name in Spain. It is located on the banks of the Turia (r ...

, where Sánchez Guerra would disembark on the evening of January 28, 1929, subsequently making contact with the Captain General of the military region. Immediately, a general insurrectionary strike would be declared, and the committed military units would rise up. Those in

Madrid Madrid ( ; ) is the capital and List of largest cities in Spain, most populous municipality of Spain. It has almost 3.5 million inhabitants and a Madrid metropolitan area, metropolitan area population of approximately 7 million. It i ...

would have the mission of detaining the king and Primo de Rivera. Alfonso XIII would be expelled from the country, and the Provisional Government, presided over by Sánchez Guerra in Valencia, would call for elections to form a

constituent assembly A constituent assembly (also known as a constitutional convention, constitutional congress, or constitutional assembly) is a body assembled for the purpose of drafting or revising a constitution. Members of a constituent assembly may be elected b ...

. However, the plan began to falter when Sánchez Guerra arrived in Valencia twenty-four hours after the agreed-upon date due to a severe storm that had affected the ship transporting him. Upon arriving at the Captaincy General around ten o'clock in the evening on January 29, General Castro Girona informed him that the plans had to be aborted because the government had control of the situation. Early the next morning, Sánchez Guerra addressed the 5th Artillery Regiment and conveyed that, given the news from other places, it was futile to carry out the uprising, although copies of the manifesto "To the Spanish People, the Army, and the Navy" (in

Spanish Spanish might refer to: * Items from or related to Spain: **Spaniards are a nation and ethnic group indigenous to Spain **Spanish language, spoken in Spain and many countries in the Americas **Spanish cuisine **Spanish history **Spanish culture ...

: ''Al pueblo español, al Ejército y a la Marina)'' signed by Sánchez Guerra and concluding with "Down with the Dictatorship! Down with absolute monarchy! Long live national sovereignty! Long live the united and dignified Army!" had been distributed. The lack of action in

discouraged uprisings elsewhere. In

Murcia Murcia ( , , ) is a city in south-eastern Spain, the Capital (political), capital and most populous city of the autonomous community of the Region of Murcia, and the Ranked lists of Spanish municipalities#By population, seventh largest city i ...

, General Queipo de Llano, who had traveled from Madrid to lead the coup there, had to return due to the refusal of the Artillery regiment to revolt. The same occurred in

Barcelona Barcelona ( ; ; ) is a city on the northeastern coast of Spain. It is the capital and largest city of the autonomous community of Catalonia, as well as the second-most populous municipality of Spain. With a population of 1.6 million within c ...

, where the planned general strike was not even called, and the officers committed to the coup decided not to bring their regiments onto the streets, despite the reproaches made by General López Ochoa, who had moved from Paris, where he had been residing since September 1928, to lead the movement throughout

Catalonia Catalonia is an autonomous community of Spain, designated as a ''nationalities and regions of Spain, nationality'' by its Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia of 2006, Statute of Autonomy. Most of its territory (except the Val d'Aran) is situate ...

. The general López de Ochoa himself recounted these events a year later: "In very harsh terms, I accused them of cowardice and lack of determination, reminding them that not only out of camaraderie but also out of dignity, shame, selfishness, and self-interest, I believed they were obliged to act. I was prepared to lead them with just one unit". The exception was the Artillery Regiment of

Ciudad Real Ciudad Real (, ) is a municipality of Spain located in the autonomous community of Castile–La Mancha, capital of the province of Ciudad Real. It is the 5th most populated municipality in the region. It was founded as Villa Real in 1255 as a ro ...

, which revolted at six-thirty in the morning on January 29, occupying strategic points in the city and its surroundings. By nine in the morning, the government became aware of what was happening and immediately ordered airplanes to fly over the city to drop leaflets titled "To the City and the Garrison of Ciudad Real," urging them to surrender. The artillerymen did not do so immediately because, with communications cut off, they believed that the coup was spreading throughout Spain. However, late in the afternoon, they realized that they were isolated, so they began to vacate the buildings they had occupied. One of the rebel captains recounted it this way: "We knew we were alone. We conferred with the barracks in many compromised towns, and all of them told us that the movement had been postponed indefinitely...".

Subsequent repression

Primo de Rivera's response to the attempted coup was to intensify the repressive nature of his dictatorship. General Sanjurjo, the head of the Civil Guard, was sent to

with full powers to restore order. A decree was approved, granting the government the authority to dismiss, exile, or suspend the salaries of any officials who expressed hostility toward the regime. Additionally, all newspapers in the country were compelled to allocate one-sixth of their publication space for government use. Cultural and social centers where opposition groups to the Dictatorship used to gather were also shut down. Furthermore, in an effort to discourage dissent, officers in the Army and soldiers were obligated to attend special lectures on military discipline, where they were reminded of the "supreme duty of never associating the name of the homeland with seditious actions of a political nature". Finally, Primo de Rivera decreed the complete dissolution of the Artillery Corps, claiming that it harbored "outbursts of Bolshevism" and had inflicted "irreparable damage" on the nation. This last decision led to a new confrontation with the king, who advocated for leniency toward the implicated military personnel.

Courts-martial and their consequences

The artillerymen from

faced a

court-martial A court-martial (plural ''courts-martial'' or ''courts martial'', as "martial" is a postpositive adjective) is a military court or a trial conducted in such a court. A court-martial is empowered to determine the guilt of members of the arme ...

, but as noted by Eduardo González Calleja, it became evident that the Army was beginning to withdraw its support from Primo, as some of the vocal members pressed for clemency in the trial (such as the General Navarro). The case was transferred to the Supreme Council of War and Navy, which annulled the death sentences and life imprisonment, reducing the penalties. The Supreme Council's ruling, issued on December 18, 1929, sentenced the 37 officers to prison terms ranging from one to twelve years, with Colonel Joaquín Paz Faraldo of the Regiment receiving a twenty-year sentence. Sánchez Guerra also underwent a court-martial on October 28, 1929, but he was acquitted. According to González Calleja, this "confirmed the legitimacy of an act of resistance against an illegitimate regime in terms of origin and exercise, and it was interpreted by public opinion as a clear act of military censorship of Primo". A similar assessment is made by

Shlomo Ben-Ami Shlomo Ben-Ami (; born 17 July 1943) is a former Israeli diplomat, politician, and historian who participated in the Israeli–Palestinian peace process, including the 2000 Camp David Summit. Biography Shlomo Benabou (later Ben-Ami) was born i ...

: "The trial in which Sánchez Guerra was acquitted by a court-martial, composed of six generals, amounted to a recognition that rebellion against an unconstitutional government was not punishable. The fact that a military court rendered this verdict boded ill for the dictator." As highlighted by Israeli historian Shlomo Ben-Ami, the "detention and subsequent trial f Sánchez Guerrashook the very foundations of the dictatorship and the throne", and "Sánchez Guerra could deliver a severe blow to the regime, not so much as the leader of a farcical rebellion but as a martyr in the struggle against absolutism." A clandestine pamphlet circulated after Sánchez Guerra's arrest stated, "Poor iron chancellor, your fate is sealed". Furthermore, the episode made the king "realize that, if he did not rid himself of the dictator, the erosion of the monarchy's position, even in traditionally loyal areas, would become an irreversible phenomenon". According to historian

Sánchez Guerra's movement marked the beginning of the end of the monarchy, hastening the defection of the historical parties and attracting key figures to the anti-dynastic side in a hypothetical political normalization, such as Villanueva, Álvarez, Bergamín, Burgos, Mazo, and Alba. After the failure of this new insurrectional proposal to overcome the Dictatorship, the constitutional debate irreversibly expanded not only to the throne holder but also to the viability of the monarchical regime as a whole.

This is how dictator Primo de Rivera himself evaluated the outcome of the courts-martial in an article written for ''

La Nación ''La Nación'' () is an Argentine daily newspaper. As the country's leading conservative newspaper, ''La Nación''s main competitor is the more liberal ''Clarín (Argentine newspaper), Clarín''. It is regarded as a newspaper of record for Argen ...

'' a few days after his fall:

The events in Ciudad Real and Valencia, linked in themselves, but less serious in themselves, in the way the participants in them were judged and sentenced by a General Officers' Court Martial designated in turn, gave me the discouraging impression that the Army, which had been by the side of the Dictatorship with such correctness, loyalty, and citizenship, was turning away from it. All of this came to impress the selfish opinion..., it impressed the King and me, and I began to announce that the Dictatorship had set a limit to its life.

Bibliography

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References

{{Reflist Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera Attempted coups in Spain Attempted coups d'état in Europe 1929 in Spain