Śūraṅgama Sūtra
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The ''Śūraṅgama Sūtra'' (, ''Sūtra of the Heroic'' ''March'') (Taisho no. 945) is a Mahayana Buddhist
sutra ''Sutra'' ()Monier Williams, ''Sanskrit English Dictionary'', Oxford University Press, Entry fo''sutra'' page 1241 in Indian literary traditions refers to an aphorism or a collection of aphorisms in the form of a manual or, more broadly, a ...
that has been especially influential on
Korean Buddhism Korean Buddhism is distinguished from other forms of Buddhism by its attempt to resolve what its early practitioners saw as inconsistencies within the Mahayana Buddhist traditions that they received from foreign countries. To address this, they ...
(where it remains a major subject of study in Sŏn monasteries) and
Chinese Buddhism Chinese Buddhism or Han Buddhism ( zh, s=汉传佛教, t=漢傳佛教, first=t, poj=Hàn-thoân Hu̍t-kàu, j=Hon3 Cyun4 Fat6 Gaau3, p=Hànchuán Fójiào) is a Chinese form of Mahayana Buddhism. The Chinese Buddhist canonJiang Wu, "The Chin ...
(where it remains a regular part of the daily liturgy in all Chinese Buddhist monasteries and a major subject of doctrinal study).Benn, James A. ''Another Look at the Pseudo-Śūraṃgama sūtra.'' Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, Vol. 68, No. 1 (Jun., 2008), pp. 57-89, Harvard-Yenching Institute, It is important for Zen/Chan Buddhism and Chinese
Pure land Buddhism Pure Land Buddhism or the Pure Land School ( zh, c=淨土宗, p=Jìngtǔzōng) is a broad branch of Mahayana, Mahayana Buddhism focused on achieving rebirth in a Pure land, Pure Land. It is one of the most widely practiced traditions of East Asi ...
(where it is considered a central scripture).Venerable Master Chin Kung; Li Ping Nan. ''The Awakening of Compassion and Wisdom,'' p. 199. The doctrinal outlook of the ''Śūraṅgama Sūtra'' is that of
Buddha-nature In Buddhist philosophy and soteriology, Buddha-nature ( Chinese: , Japanese: , , Sanskrit: ) is the innate potential for all sentient beings to become a Buddha or the fact that all sentient beings already have a pure Buddha-essence within ...
,
Yogacara Yogachara (, IAST: ') is an influential tradition of Buddhist philosophy and psychology emphasizing the study of cognition, perception, and consciousness through the interior lens of meditation, as well as philosophical reasoning (hetuvidyā). ...
thought, and esoteric Buddhism. The ''Śūraṅgama Sūtra'' was widely accepted as a sutra in
East Asian Buddhism East Asian Buddhism or East Asian Mahayana is a collective term for the schools of Mahāyāna Buddhism which developed across East Asia and which rely on the Chinese Buddhist canon. These include the various forms of Chinese, Japanese, Kore ...
, where it has traditionally been included as part of Chinese-language Tripitakas. In the modern Taisho Tripitaka, it is placed in the Esoteric Sutra category (密教部).Taisho 945 is found in Volume 19 of the Taisho Tripitaka. The sutra's '' Śūraṅgama Mantra'' is widely recited in China, Korea, Japan and Vietnam as part of temple liturgies. Most modern academic scholars (including Mochizuki Shinko, Paul Demieville, Kim Chin-yol, , Charles Muller and Kogen Mizuno), argue that the sutra is a Chinese apocryphal text that was composed in literary Chinese and reveals uniquely Chinese philosophical concerns. However, some scholars such as Ron Epstein argue that the text is a compilation of Indic materials with extensive editing in China. The sutra was translated into Tibetan during the late eighth to early ninth century and other complete translations exist in Tibetan, Mongolian and
Manchu The Manchus (; ) are a Tungusic peoples, Tungusic East Asian people, East Asian ethnic group native to Manchuria in Northeast Asia. They are an officially recognized Ethnic minorities in China, ethnic minority in China and the people from wh ...
languages (see
Translations Translation is the communication of the meaning of a source-language text by means of an equivalent target-language text. The English language draws a terminological distinction (which does not exist in every language) between ''transl ...
).


Title

''Śūraṅgama'' means "heroic valour", "heroic progress", or "heroic march" in Sanskrit. The ''Śūraṅgama Sūtra'' is not to be confused with the similarly titled ''Śūraṅgama'' ''Samadhi'' ''Sutra'' ( T. 642 首楞嚴三昧經; ''Shǒuléngyán Sānmèi Jīng'') which was translated by
Kumārajīva Kumārajīva (Sanskrit: कुमारजीव; , 344–413 CE) was a bhikkhu, Buddhist monk, scholar, missionary and translator from Kucha (present-day Aksu City, Aksu Prefecture, Xinjiang, China). Kumārajīva is seen as one of the great ...
(344–413). The complete title preserved in Chinese 大佛頂如來密因修證了義諸菩薩萬行首楞嚴經 means: An alternate translation of the title reads:


The title in different languages

A common translation of the sutra's name in English is the "Heroic March sutra" (as used e.g. by Matthew Kapstein, Norman Waddell, and Andy Ferguson), or the "scripture of the Heroic Progress" (as used e.g. by Thomas Cleary). The Sanskrit title preserved in the Chinese Tripitaka is ''Mahābuddhoṣṇīṣa-tathāgataguhyahetu-sākṣātkṛta-prasannārtha-sarvabodhisattvacaryā-śūraṅgama-sūtra'', rendered by Hsuan Hua as "Sutra of the Foremost Shurangama at the Great Buddha's Summit Concerning the Tathagata's Secret Cause of Cultivation, His Certification to Complete Meaning and All Bodhisattva's Myriad Practices". The full title of the sutra also appears as . It is also known by abbreviated versions of the title such as or simply and more commonly .


Authorship

An original Sanskrit version of ''Śūraṅgama Sūtra'' is not known to be extant and the Indic provenance of the text is in question - it is arguably
apocrypha Apocrypha () are biblical or related writings not forming part of the accepted canon of scripture, some of which might be of doubtful authorship or authenticity. In Christianity, the word ''apocryphal'' (ἀπόκρυφος) was first applied to ...
l. A Sanskrit language palm leaf manuscript consisting of 226 leaves with 6 leaves missing which according to the introduction "contains the Śūraṅgama Sūtra" was discovered in a temple in China and now resides at Peng Xuefeng Memorial Museum. But scholars have not yet verified if this is the same text or some other sutra (like the '' Śūraṅgama Samadhi Sūtra''). The first catalogue that recorded the ''Śūraṅgama Sūtra'' was Zhisheng ( zh, 智昇), a monk in
Tang China The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, c=唐朝), or the Tang Empire, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907, with an Wu Zhou, interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed ...
. Zhisheng said this book was brought back from
Guangxi Guangxi,; officially the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, is an Autonomous regions of China, autonomous region of the China, People's Republic of China, located in South China and bordering Vietnam (Hà Giang Province, Hà Giang, Cao Bằn ...
to
Luoyang Luoyang ( zh, s=洛阳, t=洛陽, p=Luòyáng) is a city located in the confluence area of the Luo River and the Yellow River in the west of Henan province, China. Governed as a prefecture-level city, it borders the provincial capital of Zheng ...
during the reign of Emperor Xuanzong. He gave two different accounts in two different books, both of which were published in 730 CE. # According to the first account found in ''The Kaiyuan Era Catalog of the Buddhist Tripitaka'' ( zh, 開元釋教錄) the was translated in 713 CE by a Ven. Master Huai Di ( zh, 懷迪) and an unnamed Indian monk. # According to the second account, in his later book ''Continuation to the History of the Translation of Buddhist Sutras Mural Record'' (續古今譯經圖記), the ' was translated in May 705 CE by
Śramaṇa A ''śramaṇa''; ; ; ; ) is a person "who labours, toils, or exerts themselves for some higher or religious purpose" or "seeker, or ascetic, one who performs acts of austerity".Monier Monier-Williams, श्रमण śramaṇa, Sanskrit-Eng ...
Pāramiti from central
India India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area; the List of countries by population (United Nations), most populous country since ...
, who came to China and brought the text to the province of
Guangzhou Guangzhou, Chinese postal romanization, previously romanized as Canton or Kwangchow, is the Capital city, capital and largest city of Guangdong Provinces of China, province in South China, southern China. Located on the Pearl River about nor ...
. The text was then polished and edited by Empress
Wu Zetian Wu Zetian (624 – 16 December 705), personal name Wu Zhao, was List of rulers of China#Tang dynasty, Empress of China from 660 to 705, ruling first through others and later in her own right. She ruled as queen consort , empress consort th ...
's former minister, court regulator, and state censor Fang Yong ( zh, 房融) of Qingho. The translation was reviewed by Śramaṇa Meghaśikha from
Oḍḍiyāna (also: ''Uḍḍiyāna'', ''Uḍḍāyāna'', ''Udyāna'' or 'Oḍḍiyāna'), a small region in early medieval India, is ascribed importance in the development and dissemination of Vajrayana, Vajrayāna Buddhism.‘Uḍḍiyāna and Kashmir’ ...
, and certified by Śramaṇa Huai-di ( zh, 懷迪) of Nanlou Monastery (南樓寺) on Mount Luofu (羅浮山).) of Qingho, the former minister, court regulator, and state censor, wrote it down. Śramaṇa Huai-di ( zh, 懷迪) of Nanlou Monastery (南樓寺) on Mount Luofu (羅浮山) verify it. After teach it all, he came back to his country. An official went to southern China, bringing this book back, so we see it here. "


Traditional views

Traditionally there have been questions regarding the translation of this sutra as it was not sponsored by the Imperial Chinese Court and as such the records regarding its translation in the early eighth century were not carefully preserved. However, it has never been classified as
apocrypha Apocrypha () are biblical or related writings not forming part of the accepted canon of scripture, some of which might be of doubtful authorship or authenticity. In Christianity, the word ''apocryphal'' (ἀπόκρυφος) was first applied to ...
in any Chinese-language Tripitakas including the Taisho Tripitaka where it is placed in the Esoteric Sutra category (密教部). Dispute about this text arose in 8th century in Japan, so Emperor Kōnin sent Master Tokusei () and a group of monks to China, asking whether this book was a forgery or not. A Chinese upasaka or layperson told the head monk of the Japanese monastic delegation, Master Tokusei that this was forged by Fang Yong.) told Master Tokusei () : This Shurangama Sutra is forged by Fang Yong, not a real
Buddhavacana Buddhist texts are religious texts that belong to, or are associated with, Buddhism and Schools of Buddhism, its traditions. There is no single textual collection for all of Buddhism. Instead, there are three main Buddhist Canons: the Pāli C ...
. But Zhi-sheng know nothing about it, so he make a mistake to list this book at ''The Kaiyuan Era Catalog of the Buddhist Tripitaka''."
Zhu Xi Zhu Xi ( zh, c=朱熹; ; October 18, 1130April 23, 1200), formerly romanized Chu Hsi, was a Chinese philosopher, historian, politician, poet, and calligrapher of the Southern Song dynasty. As a leading figure in the development of Neo-Confuci ...
, a 12th-century Neo-confucian who was opposed to Buddhism, believed that it was created during the Tang Dynasty in China, and did not come from India. The Qianlong Emperor and the Third Changkya Khutukhtu, the traditional head tulku of the
Gelug file:DalaiLama0054 tiny.jpg, 240px, 14th Dalai Lama, The 14th Dalai Lama (center), the most influential figure of the contemporary Gelug tradition, at the 2003 Kalachakra ceremony, Bodh Gaya, Bodhgaya (India) The Gelug (, also Geluk; 'virtuous' ...
lineage of
Tibetan Buddhism Tibetan Buddhism is a form of Buddhism practiced in Tibet, Bhutan and Mongolia. It also has a sizable number of adherents in the areas surrounding the Himalayas, including the Indian regions of Ladakh, Gorkhaland Territorial Administration, D ...
in Inner Mongolia, believed in the authenticity of the Śūraṅgama Sūtra. They later translated the Śūraṅgama Sūtra into the Manchu language, Mongolian and Tibetan. (see translations)


In favor of full Chinese composition

Hurvitz claims that the ''Śūraṅgama Sūtra'' is "a Chinese forgery". Faure similarly claims that it is "apocryphal." In China during the early modern era, the reformist
Liang Qichao Liang Qichao (Chinese: 梁啓超; Wade–Giles: ''Liang2 Chʻi3-chʻao1''; Yale romanization of Cantonese, Yale: ''Lèuhng Kái-chīu''; ) (February 23, 1873 – January 19, 1929) was a Chinese politician, social and political activist, jour ...
claimed that the sutra is apocryphal, writing, "The real Buddhist scriptures would not say things like Surangama Sutra, so we know the Surangama Sutra is apocryphal. In the same era, Lü Cheng ( zh, 呂澂) wrote an essay to claim that the book is apocryphal, named "One hundred reasons about why Shurangama Sutra is apocryphal" ( zh, 楞嚴百偽). According to James Benn, the Japanese scholar Mochizuki Shinko's (1869–1948) ''Bukkyo kyoten seiritsu shiron'' "showed how many of the text's doctrinal elements may be traced to sources that already existed in China at the beginning of the eighth century, and he also described he early controversy surrounding the text in Japan." Charles Muller and Kogen Mizuno also hold that this sutra is apocryphal (and is similar to other apocryphal Chinese sutras). According to Muller, "even a brief glance" through these apocryphal works "by someone familiar with both indigenous sinitic philosophy and the Indian Mahāyāna textual corpus yields the recognition of themes, terms and concepts from indigenous traditions playing a dominant role in the text, to an extent which makes it obvious that they must have been written in East Asia." He also notes that apocryphal works like the ''Śūraṅgama'' contain terms that were only used in East Asia:
...such as innate enlightenment (本覺 pen-chüeh) and actualized enlightenment (始覺 chih-chüeh) and other terms connected with the discourse of the tathāgatagarbha-
ālayavijñāna The Eight Consciousnesses (Skt. ''aṣṭa vijñānakāyāḥ'') are a classification developed in the tradition of the Yogacara, Yogācāra school of Mahayana Buddhism. They enumerate the five sense consciousnesses, supplemented by the mental ...
problematik (the debate as to whether the human mind is, at its most fundamental level, pure or impure) appear in such number that the difference from the bona fide translations from Indic languages is obvious. Furthermore, the entire discourse of innate/actualized enlightenment and tathāgatagarbha-ālayavijñāna opposition can be seen as strongly reflecting a Chinese philosophical obsession dating back to at least the time of Mencius, when Mencius entered into debate with Kao-tzu on the original purity of the mind. The indigenous provenance of such texts is also indicated by their clear influence and borrowing from other current popular East Asian works, whether or not these other works were Indian or East Asian composition.
Muller also writes that the ''Śūraṅgama'' shows evidence of being influenced by the metaphysical framework of the ''Ch'i-hsin lun'' ('' Awakening of Faith''), another apocryphal treatise composed in China. James A. Benn notes that the ''Śūraṅgama'' also "shares some notable similarities with another scripture composed in China and dating to the same period", that is, the '' Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment''. Indeed, Benn states that "One might regard the ''Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment'', which has only one fascicle, as opposed to the ''Śūraṅgama'''s ten, as a precis of the essential points of the ''Śūraṅgama''." Benn points out several passages which present uniquely Chinese understandings of animal life and natural phenomena that are without Indic precedent (such as the "Jelly fish with shrimp for eyes" and the "wasps, which take the larvae of other insects as their own") but that are found in earlier
Chinese literature The history of Chinese literature extends thousands of years, and begins with the earliest recorded inscriptions, court archives, building to the major works of philosophy and history written during the Axial Age. The Han dynasty, Han (202  ...
. James A. Benn also notes how the ''Śūraṅgama'' even borrows ideas that are mostly found in
Taoist Taoism or Daoism (, ) is a diverse philosophical and religious tradition indigenous to China, emphasizing harmony with the Tao ( zh, p=dào, w=tao4). With a range of meaning in Chinese philosophy, translations of Tao include 'way', 'road', ...
sources (such as the '' Baopuzi)'', such as the idea that there are ten types of " immortals" (仙 ''xiān'') in a realm located between the
deva Deva may refer to: Arts and entertainment Fictional characters * Deva, List of Advanced Dungeons & Dragons 2nd edition monsters, an ''Advanced Dungeons & Dragons'' 2nd edition monster * Deva, in the 2023 Indian film ''Salaar: Part 1 – Ceasefir ...
realm and the human realm. The qualities of these immortals include common ideas found in Taoism, such as their "ingestion of metals and minerals" and the practice of "movement and stillness"(''dongzhi'', which is related to ''
daoyin ''Daoyin'' is a series of cognitive body and mind unity exercises practiced as a form of Daoist ''neigong'', meditation and mindfulness to cultivate '' jing'' (essence) and direct and refine '' qi'', the internal energy of the body according t ...
''). Benn argues that the ''Śūraṅgama's'' "taxonomy" of immortals was "clearly derived" from Taoist literature. In a similar fashion, the ''Śūraṅgama's'' "ten types of demons" (鬼 gui), are also influenced by Taoist and Confucian sources. After the critiques of the Śūraṅgama from Lyu Cheng and Liang Qichao, Shi Minsheng (釋愍生) established a rigorous response to them, criticizing the misinterpretations that both Lyu and Liang made for understanding the Śūraṅgama. In Shi Minsheng's Arguments Against Lyu Cheng'critiques (辯破楞嚴百偽), Shi Minsheng listed 100 arguments that corresponded to Lyu Cheng's 100 critiques, showing accurate evidence that is traceable in Buddhist scriptures.


In favor of the sutra being based on Indian originals

Ron Epstein gives an overview of the arguments for Indian or Chinese origin, and concludes: A number of scholars have associated the ''Śūraṅgama Sūtra'' with the Buddhist tradition at Nālandā. Epstein thinks that certain passages in the sutra do show Chinese influence, such as the section on the Taoist immortals, but he thinks that this "could easily represent an adaptive Chinese translation of Buddhist tantric ideas. The whole area of the doctrinal relationship between the Taoist ''nei-tan'', or so-called "inner alchemy", and early Buddhist tantra is a murky one, and until we know more about both, the issue probably cannot be resolved adequately." Epstein further writes regarding uniquely Chinese influences found in the text: "As to things Chinese, there are various short references to them scattered throughout the text, but, just as well as indicating the work's Chinese origin, they also could be an indication of a translation style of substitution of parallel items, which would fit right in with the highly literary Chinese phraseology." In arguing for an Indic origin, Epstein gives three main reasons: # He argues many Sanskrit terms which appear in the text, "including some not often found in other Chinese translations. Moreover, the transliteration system does not seem to follow that of other works." # Epstein also notes that the general doctrinal position of the sūtra (tantric ''
tathagatagarbha In Buddhist philosophy and soteriology, Buddha-nature ( Chinese: , Japanese: , , Sanskrit: ) is the innate potential for all sentient beings to become a Buddha or the fact that all sentient beings already have a pure Buddha-essence within ...
'' teachings) does indeed correspond to what is known about the Buddhist teachings at Nālandā during this period. # Large sections "definitely seem to contain Indic materials. Some passages could conceivably have been constructed from texts already translated into Chinese, although given the bulk and complexity of the material, to account for much of the text in that way would mean that the task of authorship would have had to have been an enormous one. About other portions of the work, such as the ''bodhimanda'' and mantra, there can be no doubt about their direct Indic origin." Similarly, Rounds argues for an Indic source by pointing out "two indisputably Indian elements" in the sutra: the text's reliance on the Buddhist science of reasoning (hetuvidya) and the ''Śūraṅgama'' mantra.


Non-Chinese Translations

The Śūraṅgama Sūtra was translated into Tibetan probably during the late eighth to early ninth century. However possibly because of the persecution of Buddhism during King Langdarma's reign (ca. 840-841), only a portion of Scroll 9 and Scroll 10 of the Śūraṅgama Sūtra are preserved in the surviving two ancient texts. Buton Rinchen Drub
Rinpoche Rinpoche, also spelled Rimpoche (), is an honorific term used in the Tibetan language. It literally means "precious one", and may refer to a person, place, or thing—like the words "gem" or "jewel" (Sanskrit: '' Ratna''). The word consists of '' ...
mentioned that one of the two texts was probably translated from Chinese; thereby suggesting the second text may have possibly been translated from another language. The entire Śūraṅgama Sūtra was translated in 1763 from Han Chinese into the
Manchu language Manchu ( ) is a critically endangered language, endangered Tungusic language native to the historical region of Manchuria in Northeast China. As the traditional native language of the Manchu people, Manchus, it was one of the official language ...
, Mongolian and Tibetan languages and compiled into a four language set at the command of the
Qianlong Emperor The Qianlong Emperor (25 September 17117 February 1799), also known by his temple name Emperor Gaozong of Qing, personal name Hongli, was the fifth Emperor of China, emperor of the Qing dynasty and the fourth Qing emperor to rule over China pr ...
. The third Changkya Khutukhtu Rölpé Dorjé or 若必多吉 or Lalitavajra (1716–1786) convinced the Qianlong Emperor to engage in the translation. The third Changkya Khutukhtu supervised (and verified) with the help of Fu Nai the translation of the Śūraṅgama Sūtra. The complete translation of the Śūraṅgama Sūtra into Tibetan is found in a supplement to the Narthang Kangyur.


English translations

There are a few English translations: * The ''Surangama Sutra,'' published in ''A Buddhist Bible,'' translated by Dwight Goddard and Bhikshu Wai-tao. * Charles Luk, 1967, ''Shurangama Sutra'' * ''The Shurangama Sutra with commentary by Master Hsuan Hua''. Volumes 1 to 8. Buddhist Translation Society, 2nd edition (October 2003). * Buddhist Text Translation Society (2009). ''The Śūraṅgama Sūtra, With Excerpts from the Commentary by the Venerable Master Hsüan Hua'', ''A New Translation,'' p. 267. Dharma Realm Buddhist Association, 4951 Bodhi Way, Ukiah, California 95482 (707) 462–0939, bttsonline.org.


Teachings

Stele with words from Shurangama Mantra, Beijing Rock Carving Art Museum


Doctrinal orientation

The ''Śūraṅgama Sūtra'' contains teachings from
Yogācāra Yogachara (, IAST: ') is an influential tradition of Buddhist philosophy and psychology emphasizing the study of cognition, perception, and consciousness through the interior lens of meditation, as well as philosophical reasoning (hetuvidyā). ...
,
Buddha-nature In Buddhist philosophy and soteriology, Buddha-nature ( Chinese: , Japanese: , , Sanskrit: ) is the innate potential for all sentient beings to become a Buddha or the fact that all sentient beings already have a pure Buddha-essence within ...
, and
Vajrayana ''Vajrayāna'' (; 'vajra vehicle'), also known as Mantrayāna ('mantra vehicle'), Guhyamantrayāna ('secret mantra vehicle'), Tantrayāna ('tantra vehicle'), Tantric Buddhism, and Esoteric Buddhism, is a Mahāyāna Buddhism, Mahāyāna Buddhis ...
. It makes use of
Buddhist logic Buddhist logico-epistemology is a term used in Western scholarship to describe Buddhism, Buddhist systems of ' (Epistemology, epistemic tool, valid cognition) and ' (reasoning, logic). While the term may refer to various Buddhist systems and vi ...
with its methods of
syllogism A syllogism (, ''syllogismos'', 'conclusion, inference') is a kind of logical argument that applies deductive reasoning to arrive at a conclusion based on two propositions that are asserted or assumed to be true. In its earliest form (defin ...
and the catuṣkoṭi "fourfold negation" first popularized by
Nāgārjuna Nāgārjuna (Sanskrit: नागार्जुन, ''Nāgārjuna''; ) was an Indian monk and Mahāyāna Buddhist philosopher of the Madhyamaka (Centrism, Middle Way) school. He is widely considered one of the most important Buddhist philosoph ...
.


Main themes

One of the main themes of the ''Śūraṅgama Sūtra'' is how knowledge of the Buddha's teaching (
Dharma Dharma (; , ) is a key concept in various Indian religions. The term ''dharma'' does not have a single, clear Untranslatability, translation and conveys a multifaceted idea. Etymologically, it comes from the Sanskrit ''dhr-'', meaning ''to hold ...
) is worthless unless it is coupled with the power of
samādhi Statue of a meditating Rishikesh.html" ;"title="Shiva, Rishikesh">Shiva, Rishikesh ''Samādhi'' (Pali and ), in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, is a state of meditative consciousness. In many Indian religious traditions, the cultivati ...
(meditative absorption), as well as the importance of moral precepts as a foundation for the Buddhist practice. Also stressed is the theme of how one effectively combats delusions and demonic influences that may arise during meditation. According to Ron Epstein, a key theme of the sutra is the "two types of mind", furthermore, "also contained in the work are a discussion of meditational methodology in terms of the importance of picking the proper faculty (''
indriya ''Indriya'' (literally "belonging to or agreeable to Indra") is the Sanskrit and Pali term for physical strength or ability in general, and for and specifically refers to the ''five spiritual faculties'', the five or six sensory faculties, and the ...
'') as a vehicle for meditation, instructions for the construction of a tantric '' bodhimanda'', a long mantra, a description of fifty-seven Bodhisattva stages, a description of the karmic relationship among the destinies (''gati''), or paths of rebirth, and an enumeration of fifty demonic states encountered on the path." Ron Epstein and David Rounds have suggested that the major themes of the ''Śūraṅgama Sūtra'' reflect the strains upon
Indian Buddhism Buddhism is an ancient Indian religion, which arose in and around the ancient Kingdom of Magadha (now Bihar, India). It is based on the teachings of Gautama Buddha, who lived in the 6th or 5th century BCE and was deemed a "Buddha" or an ...
during the time of its creation. They cite the resurgence of non-Buddhist religions, and the crumbling social supports for monastic Buddhist institutions. This era also saw the emergence of Hindu
tantrism Tantra (; ) is an esoteric yogic tradition that developed on the Indian subcontinent beginning in the middle of the 1st millennium CE, first within Shaivism and later in Buddhism. The term ''tantra'', in the Indian traditions, also means ...
and the beginnings of Esoteric Buddhism and the
siddha ''Siddha'' (Sanskrit: '; "perfected one") is a term that is used widely in Indian religions and culture. It means "one who is accomplished." It refers to perfected masters who have achieved a high degree of perfection of the intellect as we ...
traditions. They propose that moral challenges and general confusion about Buddhism are said to have then given rise to the themes of the ''Śūraṅgama Sūtra'', such as clear understanding of principles, moral discipline, essential Buddhist cosmology, development of samādhi, and how to avoid falling into various delusions in meditation.


Two types of mind

A key theme found in the ''Śūraṅgama Sūtra'' is the distinction between the true mind and the discriminating mind.Rounds, David.
Rescuing Ananda - An overview of the Surangama Sutra
'. Religion East & West, Issue 7, October, 2007.
The discriminating worldly mind is the ordinary quotidian mind that becomes entangled in rebirth, thinking, change and illusion. But, according to the ''Śūraṅgama,'' there is also "an everlasting true mind, which is our real nature, and which is the state of the Buddha." According to the ''Śūraṅgama,'' the worldly mind "is the mind that is the basis of death and rebirth and that has continued for the entirety of time...dependent upon perceived objects." This worldly mind is mistaken by sentient beings as being their true nature. Meanwhile, the "pure enlightened mind" is the underlying nature of all dharmas (phenomena). It is the ultimate reality which is also enlightenment, which has no beginning. It is the original and pure essence of
nirvana Nirvana, in the Indian religions (Jainism, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Sikhism), is the concept of an individual's passions being extinguished as the ultimate state of salvation, release, or liberation from suffering ('' duḥkha'') and from the ...
. The true awakened mind is an unchanging awareness that remains still and independent of all sense objects, even while the discriminating mind changes. The pure mind then is the essential nature of awareness, not the ordinary awareness which is distorted and diseased. This theme of the everlasting true mind which is contrasted with the samsaric mind is also a common theme of the '' Mahayana Awakening of Faith'' treatise.


Buddha-nature

The "everlasting true mind" is associated with the
Mahayana Mahāyāna ( ; , , ; ) is a term for a broad group of Buddhist traditions, Buddhist texts#Mahāyāna texts, texts, Buddhist philosophy, philosophies, and practices developed in ancient India ( onwards). It is considered one of the three main ex ...
teaching of ''tathāgatagarbha'' or
buddha-nature In Buddhist philosophy and soteriology, Buddha-nature ( Chinese: , Japanese: , , Sanskrit: ) is the innate potential for all sentient beings to become a Buddha or the fact that all sentient beings already have a pure Buddha-essence within ...
. Rounds and Epstein explain the ''Śūraṅgama's'' conception of the ''tathāgatagarbha'', the "Matrix of the Thus Come One", as follows: Thus, according to the ''Śūraṅgama Sūtra'' the "buddha-womb" or "buddha-essence" is source of mind and world. This buddha nature is originally pure enlightenment, however, due to the deluded development of a subject-object separation, the whole world of birth and death arises.


Meditation practices

The ''Śūraṅgama Sūtra'' teaches about the Śūraṅgama Samādhi (the "meditative absorption of the heroic march"), which is associated with complete enlightenment and
Buddhahood In Buddhism, Buddha (, which in classic Indo-Aryan languages, Indic languages means "awakened one") is a title for those who are Enlightenment in Buddhism, spiritually awake or enlightened, and have thus attained the Buddhist paths to liberat ...
. This samādhi is also featured extensively in the '' Śūraṅgama Samādhi Sūtra''. It is equally praised in the '' Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra'', where it is explained by the Buddha that this samādhi is the essence of the nature of the Buddha and is indeed the "mother of all Buddhas." The Buddha also comments that the Śūraṅgama Samādhi additionally goes under several other names, specifically ''
Prajñāpāramitā A Tibetan painting with a Prajñāpāramitā sūtra at the center of the mandala Prajñāpāramitā means "the Perfection of Wisdom" or "Transcendental Knowledge" in Mahāyāna. Prajñāpāramitā refers to a perfected way of seeing the natu ...
'' ("Perfection of Wisdom"), the ''
Vajra The Vajra (, , ), is a legendary and ritualistic tool, symbolizing the properties of a diamond (indestructibility) and a thunderbolt (irresistible force). It is also described as a "ritual weapon". The use of the bell and vajra together as s ...
Samādhi'', the ''Siṃhanāda Samādhi'' ("Lion's Roar Samādhi"), and the ''Buddha- svabhāva''. The ''Śūraṅgama Sūtra'' contains various explanations of specific meditation practices which help one cultivate
samadhi Statue of a meditating Rishikesh.html" ;"title="Shiva, Rishikesh">Shiva, Rishikesh ''Samādhi'' (Pali and ), in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, is a state of meditative consciousness. In many Indian religious traditions, the cultivati ...
, including a famous passage in which twenty five sages discuss twenty five methods of practice. The main intent of these various methods is to detach one's awareness of all sense objects and to direct awareness inward, to the fundamental true nature. This leads to the experience of the disappearance of everything and finally to illumination. The most well known part of this passage is the meditation taught by
bodhisattva In Buddhism, a bodhisattva is a person who has attained, or is striving towards, '' bodhi'' ('awakening', 'enlightenment') or Buddhahood. Often, the term specifically refers to a person who forgoes or delays personal nirvana or ''bodhi'' in ...
Avalokiteshvara, the last of these sages to teach. Avalokiteshvara describes their method as follows:
I began with a practice based on the enlightened nature of hearing. First I redirected my hearing inward in order to enter the current of the sages. Then external sounds disappeared. With the direction of my hearing reversed and with sounds stilled, both sounds and silence ceased to arise. So it was that, as I gradually progressed, what I heard and my awareness of what I heard came to an end. Even when that state of mind in which everything had come to an end disappeared, I did not rest. My awareness and the objects of my awareness were emptied, and when that process of emptying my awareness was wholly complete, then even that emptying and what had been emptied vanished. Coming into being and ceasing to be themselves ceased to be. Then the ultimate stillness was revealed. All of a sudden I transcended the worlds of ordinary beings, and I also transcended the worlds of beings who have transcended the ordinary worlds. Everything in the ten directions was fully illuminated, and I gained two remarkable powers. First, my mind ascended to unite with the fundamental, wondrous, enlightened mind of all Buddhas in all ten directions, and my power of compassion became the same as theirs. Second, my mind descended to unite with all beings of the six destinies in all ten directions such that I felt their sorrows and their prayerful yearnings as my own.
The other section of the sutra which is influential in
Chinese Buddhism Chinese Buddhism or Han Buddhism ( zh, s=汉传佛教, t=漢傳佛教, first=t, poj=Hàn-thoân Hu̍t-kàu, j=Hon3 Cyun4 Fat6 Gaau3, p=Hànchuán Fójiào) is a Chinese form of Mahayana Buddhism. The Chinese Buddhist canonJiang Wu, "The Chin ...
is the passage which details the meditation method of Mahasthamaprapta Bodhisattva. This section is considered to be a major text of Chinese Pure Land Buddhism, since it discusses the practice of
nianfo 250px, Chinese Nianfo carving The Nianfo ( zh, t= 念佛, p=niànfó, alternatively in Japanese ; ; or ) is a Buddhist practice central to East Asian Buddhism. The Chinese term ''nianfo'' is a translation of Sanskrit '' '' ("recollection of th ...
(recollection of the Buddha Amitabha). This passage states:
beings who are always mindful of the Buddha, always thinking of the Buddha, are certain to see the Buddha now or in the future. They will never be far from Buddhas, and their minds will awaken by themselves without any special effort. Such people may be said to be adorned with fragrance and light, just as people who have been in the presence of incense will naturally smell sweet. The basis of my practice was mindfulness of the Buddha. I became patient with the state of mind in which no mental objects arise. Now when people of this world are mindful of the Buddha, I act as their guide to lead them to the Pure Land. The Buddha has asked us how we broke through to enlightenment. In order to enter samādhi, I chose no other method than to gather in the six faculties while continuously maintaining a pure mindfulness of the Buddha. This is the best method.


Ethics and traditional practices

The ''Śūraṅgama Sūtra'' also focuses on the necessity of keeping traditional ethical precepts, especially the five precepts and the monastic vinaya. These precepts are said to be the basis to
samadhi Statue of a meditating Rishikesh.html" ;"title="Shiva, Rishikesh">Shiva, Rishikesh ''Samādhi'' (Pali and ), in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, is a state of meditative consciousness. In many Indian religious traditions, the cultivati ...
which in turn leads to wisdom. The Buddha describes the precepts as clear and unalterable instruction on purity which transverse time and place. If one breaks them (by killing, stealing, lying etc.) one will never reach enlightenment, no matter how much one meditates. Indeed, according to the ''Śūraṅgama:''
No matter how much you may practice samādhi in order to transcend the stress of entanglement with perceived objects, you will never transcend that stress until you have freed yourself from thoughts of killing. Even very intelligent people who can enter samādhi while practicing meditation in stillness are certain to fall into the realm of ghosts and spirits upon their rebirth if they have not renounced all killing.
Similarly, the sutra also claims that unless one frees oneself from sensual desire, sexual activity, meat eating (which it associated with killing), stealing or lying, one will not reach enlightenment.Buddhist Text Translation Society (2009). ''The Śūraṅgama Sūtra, With Excerpts from the Commentary by the Venerable Master Hsüan Hua, A New Translation'', pp. 267-274. Dharma Realm Buddhist Association, 4951 Bodhi Way, Ukiah, California 95482 (707) 462–0939, bttsonline.org. According to the ''Śūraṅgama,'' even though one may have some wisdom and meditative absorption, one is certain to enter bad rebirths, even Naraka (Buddhism), the hells, if one does not cease lust, killing, stealing and making false claims. The ''Śūraṅgama'' also warns against heterodox teachers who practice meditation without being properly prepared and then fall under the influence of demons. These teachers then begin to spout Heterodoxy, heterodoxies, such as the idea that practitioners should stop revering stupas and temples, wishing to destroy
sutra ''Sutra'' ()Monier Williams, ''Sanskrit English Dictionary'', Oxford University Press, Entry fo''sutra'' page 1241 in Indian literary traditions refers to an aphorism or a collection of aphorisms in the form of a manual or, more broadly, a ...
s and Buddha in art, Buddha statues and engaging in sex while saying that "the male and female organs are the true abodes of bodhi and nirvana". James A. Benn notes that the first teaching may be a reference to certain radical Chan Buddhism, Chan masters of the time, while the second one may refer to certain Vajrayana, esoteric Buddhist practices which made use of ritual sex.


Diet, lifestyle and ascetic practice

The ''Śūraṅgama'' ''Sūtra'' argues for strict dietary rules, including Buddhist vegetarianism, vegetarianism and the avoidance of the five pungent roots (radish, leek, onion, garlic, asafoetida). The sutra argues that these dietary choices "drive away bodhisattvas, gods, and xian [immortals], who protect the practitioner in this life, and attracts instead hungry ghosts." The sutra also states that eating meat can have dire consequences:
You should know that those who eat meat, although their minds maybe opened and realize a semblance of samadhi, will become great Rakshasa, raksasas (demons). When that retribution is over, they will sink back into the bitter ocean of samsara and will not be able to be disciples of the Buddha.
The ''Śūraṅgama'' goes even further with its ascetic injunctions, recommending the avoidance of animal products such as silk, leather, furs, milk, cream, and butter and arguing that this abstention can be a cause of enlightenment:
Bodhisattvas and pure monks walking on country paths will not even tread on living grasses, much less uproot them. How then can it be compassionate to gorge on other beings' blood and flesh? Monks who will not wear silks from the East, whether coarse or fine; who will not wear shoes or boots of leather, nor furs, nor birds' down from our own country; and who will not consume milk, curds, or ghee, have truly freed themselves from the world. When they have paid their debts from previous lives, they will roam no longer through the three realms. "Why? To wear parts of a being's body is to involve one's karma with that being, just as people have become bound to this earth by eating vegetables and grains. I can affirm that a person who neither eats the flesh of other beings nor wears any part of the bodies of other beings, nor even thinks of eating or wearing these things, is a person who will gain liberation.
The sutra also teaches the practice of the Self-immolation, burning of the body as an offering to the Buddhas.


The White Parasol Crown Dhāraṇī

file:Usnisasitatapatra.jpg, A statue of Sitatapatra, Usnisasitatapatra, the protective deity of the Śūraṅgama Mantra, Inner Mongolia. 18th century In addition to the sūtra's doctrinal content, it also contains a long dhāraṇī (chant, incantation) which is known in Chinese as the ''Léngyán Zhòu'' (楞嚴咒), or Shurangama Mantra, ''Śūraṅgama Mantra''. It is well-known and popularly chanted in
East Asian Buddhism East Asian Buddhism or East Asian Mahayana is a collective term for the schools of Mahāyāna Buddhism which developed across East Asia and which rely on the Chinese Buddhist canon. These include the various forms of Chinese, Japanese, Kore ...
. In Sanskrit, the dhāraṇī is known as the ''Sitatapatra, Sitātapatra Uṣṇīṣa Dhāraṇī'' (Ch. 大白傘蓋陀羅尼). This is sometimes simplified in English to ''White Canopy Dhāraṇī'' or ''White Parasol Dhāraṇī.'' In Tibetan traditions, the English is instead sometimes rendered as the "White Umbrella Mantra." The dhāraṇī is extant in three other translations found in the Chinese Buddhist canon, and is also preserved in Sanskrit and Standard Tibetan, Tibetan. This dhāraṇī is often seen as having magical Apotropaic magic, apotropaic powers, as it is associated with the deity Sitatapatra, Sitātapatra, a protector against supernatural dangers and evil beings. The ''Śūraṅgama Sūtra'' also states that the dhāraṇī can be used as an expedient means to enter into the ''Śūraṅgama samadhi.'' According to Rounds, the sutra also "gives precise instructions on the construction and consecration of a sacred space in which a practitioner can properly focus on recitation of the mantra."'''' The '' Śūraṅgama Mantra'' is widely recited in China, Korea and Vietnam by Mahayana monastics on a daily basis and by some laypersons as part of the Morning Recitation Liturgy. The mantra is also recited by some Buddhism in Japan, Japanese Buddhist sects.


Realms of rebirth, bodhisattva stages and Demons

The ''Śūraṅgama Sūtra'' also contains various explanations of Buddhist cosmology and soteriology. The sutra outlines various levels of enlightenment, the fifty-five bodhisattva stages. It also contains explanations of the horrible sufferings that are experienced in the hells (Naraka (Buddhism), narakas) as well as explanations of the other realms of rebirth.'''' Another theme found in the ''Śūraṅgama Sūtra'' is that of various Mara (demon), Māras (demonic beings) which are manifestations of the five skandhas (aggregates). In its section on the fifty skandha-māras, each of the five skandhas has ten skandha-māras associated with it, and each skandha-māra is described in detail as a deviation from correct samādhi. These skandha-māras are also known as the "fifty skandha demons" in some English-language publications. Epstein introduces the fifty skandha-māras section as follows:


Influence

file:The Surangama tower of Jinding Temple.jpg, The Surangama pagoda of JTongwadian (Dali), inding Temple (金顶寺; 金頂寺; 'Gold Summit Temple') James A. Benn, while arguing that the text is a Chinese composition, also writes that, "no crude fake, the ''Śūraṅgama'' is elegantly constructed and beautifully written, a text that we might easily rank among the masterpieces of medieval
Chinese literature The history of Chinese literature extends thousands of years, and begins with the earliest recorded inscriptions, court archives, building to the major works of philosophy and history written during the Axial Age. The Han dynasty, Han (202  ...
. It today remains a widely read text, much appreciated, and seriously studied by Chinese Buddhists. Its insights continue to inform the lives and practices of both monastics and laypeople. That it is not a translation of an Indian original by no means discredits its spiritual value. Buddhism from its origins was adaptable to local circumstances, and the ''Śūraṅgama'' is but another example of that missionary spirit."


Mainland East Asia

The ''Śūraṅgama Sūtra'' has been widely studied and commented on in
Chinese Buddhism Chinese Buddhism or Han Buddhism ( zh, s=汉传佛教, t=漢傳佛教, first=t, poj=Hàn-thoân Hu̍t-kàu, j=Hon3 Cyun4 Fat6 Gaau3, p=Hànchuán Fójiào) is a Chinese form of Mahayana Buddhism. The Chinese Buddhist canonJiang Wu, "The Chin ...
. Ron Epstein has "found reference to 127 Chinese commentaries on the Sutra, quite a few for such a lengthy work, including 59 in the Ming dynasty alone, when it was especially popular". Two principal factors underpinned its appeal. First, the text presents Buddha-nature through the concept of ''xin xing'' (心性), or mind-nature, aligning with the interpretive framework common to most Chinese Buddhist traditions. Second, its doctrinal content is thoroughly Mahāyāna, resonating with the dominant philosophical orientation of Chinese Buddhism since the Tang. Once the sūtra appeared during the Tang, it was swiftly integrated into various schools, especially the Chan tradition. Chan patriarch Wuzhu (無住, 714–774), founder of the Baotang lineage, was the first to extensively cite the ''Śūraṃgama Sūtra'' to support Chan teachings. Prominent later Chan figures such as Guishan (溈山), Yangshan (仰山), and Fayan (法眼) were also deeply familiar with the text. The earliest known commentary, by Weique (惟愨), was produced in 766.Ma, Yungfen 楔㯠剔 (Shi Jianshu 慳夳㧆). 2011. The Revival of Tiantai Buddhism in the Late Ming: On the Thought of Youxi Chuandeng (1554- 1628), pp. 103-115. Ph.D. diss., Columbia University. In the Song dynasty influential figures like Zongmi (圭峰宗密, 780–841) and Yanshou (永明延壽, 904–975) helped advance the sūtra's prestige. Zongmi, who bridged the Huayan and Chan schools, frequently cited it in his interpretation of the ''Sūtra of Perfect Enlightenment'' and considered it a supreme expression of doctrine, emblematic of the unity of Chan and scriptural teaching. Similarly, Yanshou made extensive use of the sūtra in his major treatise, ''Zongjing lu'' (宗鏡錄), to reinforce the same theme. Exegesis on the ''Śūraṃgama Sūtra'' proliferated during the Song, especially among thinkers affiliated with the Huayan, Tiantai, and Chan traditions. Changshui Zixuan (長水子璿, 965–1038), who revitalized the Huayan school, earned the epithet "Grand Master of the Śūraṃgama" due to his influential commentary, ''Lengyan yishu'' (楞嚴義疏). His disciple, Jinshui Jingyuan (晉水淨源, 1011–1088), composed the first ritual manual based on the sūtra, ''Shoulengyan tanchang xiuzheng yi'' (首楞嚴壇場修證儀). Tiantai tradition also revered the sūtra. Key Tiantai masters of the Song like Zhili (知禮, 960–1028) and Zunshi (遵式, 964–1032) drew upon the ''Śūraṃgama Sūtra'' to support their positions. Commentaries by Gushan Zhiyuan (孤山智圓, 976–1022) and Renyue Jingjue (仁岳淨覺, 992–1064) became especially influential. In the Song era Chan school, the sūtra was revered as “the marrow of Chan” and became a central text. Chan monks used its content to support and deepen the integration of meditative and doctrinal practice. Masters such as Dahui Zonggao (大慧宗杲, 1089–1163) and Hongzhi Zhengjue (宏智正覺, 1091–1157) interpreted its teaching on the “ear-organ entry” as a model for Chan realization. During the Song dynasty, Song Dynasty the sutra was used in a ritual called the ''Śūraṅgama assembly'' which "was held semi-annually during monastic retreats, and there the participants chanted the long magical spell (dharani) contained in the sutra. The dharani was also recited at memorial services for Chan abbots and patriarchs." The sūtra is cited in various Chan Buddhist texts, like the ''Blue Cliff Record'' (case 94). The ''Śūraṅgama Sūtra'' also influenced the work of several Song intellectuals, like Su Shi (1037–1101) and Su Zhe (1039–1112). Beyond Buddhism, the sūtra also began to influence Daoist and Confucian intellectuals in the Song. It was a preferred text among literati with Buddhist interests. As noted by official Chen Guan (陳瓘, 1042–1106), lay scholars often limited their Buddhist reading to a few key works, including the ''Śūraṃgama Sūtra''. Distinguished figures such as Su Shi (蘇軾), Su Che (蘇轍), Wang Anshi (王安石), Zhang Shangying (張商英), and Huang Tingjian (黃庭堅) were all familiar with it. Commentaries by Wang and Zhang were particularly esteemed by monastic readers. Even Zhu Xi (朱熹), a critic of Buddhism, engaged with the sūtra, recognizing the necessity of understanding it in order to refute it effectively. The sūtra retained its prominence during the Yuan dynasty. Chan masters Zhongfeng Mingben (中峰明本, 1263–1323) and his disciple Tianru Weize (天如惟則, 1284–1354) continued to promote its study. Weize’s commentary, ''Lengyan huijie'' (楞嚴會解), became the most authoritative exegetical work on the sūtra for the next two centuries. He asserted that no other scripture equaled the ''Śūraṃgama Sūtra'' in elucidating mind-nature, making it essential for Chan practice. Although Huayan and Tiantai were in decline during the Yuan, figures like Biefeng Datong (別峰大同, 1289–1370) and Yuanmeng Yunze (雲夢允澤, 1232–1297) sought to revitalize their respective schools through engagement with the ''Śūraṃgama Sūtra''. Even Pure Land master Pudu (普度, d. 1330) drew on the sūtra to bolster his interpretation of Pure Land practice. The Ming dynasty saw the ''Śūraṅgama Sūtra'' at the height of its popularity in China. By the mid-Ming period, although Buddhism as a whole was experiencing a decline, the ''Śūraṅgama Sūtra'' retained significant influence, particularly among eminent monks and the educated elite. During this time, the Huayan monk Huijin 慧進 (1355–1436) was invited to lecture on the ''Śūraṅgama Sūtra'' in the imperial capital, drawing audiences exceeding ten thousand.Ma, Yungfen 楔㯠剔 (Shi Jianshu 慳夳㧆). 2011. The Revival of Tiantai Buddhism in the Late Ming: On the Thought of Youxi Chuandeng (1554- 1628), pp. 115-124 . Ph.D. diss., Columbia University. During the late Ming period, the ''Śūraṃgama Sūtra'' reached a peak in its influence and popularity among both Buddhist circles and the broader intellectual elite. Over the seventy-year span of the late Ming, more commentarial works on the ''Śūraṃgama Sūtra'' were produced than in any other historical period. The Qing-era monastic scholar Tongli (通理, 1701–1782) recorded at least sixty-eight known commentaries between the sūtra’s appearance in the Tang and his own time, with thirty of these composed during the late Ming alone—surpassing the twenty produced in the Song. A more comprehensive modern count confirms this trend: out of 135 commentaries written from the Tang through the Qing, sixty originated in the Ming, with over fifty of those concentrated in the late Ming. The range of authors (including Buddhists, Confucians, and Daoists) indicates the text’s wide dissemination and popularity among the literati. The continued relevance of the ''Śūraṅgama Sūtra'' during the Ming is largely attributable to its sophisticated exposition of ''mind-nature'' (心性), a theme that resonated across the Chinese intellectual landscape in the Ming. As a tradition of foreign origin, Buddhism had long positioned itself in dialogue with native Chinese philosophies. It was only in the Ming dynasty, however, that the convergence of Buddhism, Confucianism, and Daoism achieved a degree of philosophical integration around the principle that ''mind-nature is truth''. This development reflected a broader trend of doctrinal synthesis among Three teachings, the three teachings. One key figure in this transformation was the Neo-Confucian philosopher Wang Yangming 王陽明 (1472–1529), who reoriented Confucian metaphysics by emphasizing the concept of ''innate knowing'' (良知 ''liang zhi''). In his system, the mind supplanted ''Heavenly Principle'' (天理) as the foundational reality, thereby identifying the mind as the source and substance of all phenomena. Wang’s system gained wide acceptance in Confucian circles and served to dissolve longstanding boundaries between the three traditions. This philosophical convergence catalyzed the late Ming movement known as "Three Teachings in One" (三教合一), which advocated the fundamental compatibility of Buddhism, Daoism, and Confucianism. Moreover, the ''Śūraṅgama Sūtra'' became a tool through which Buddhists articulated the superiority of their doctrine over that of the other traditions. For example, one promoter of the sutra, the eminent monk Yunqi Zhuhong, while acknowledging that the three teachings express a common principle with varying degrees of profundity, asserted that the teachings of Confucian and Daoist sages failed to attain the depth of insight found in the sūtra’s presentation of the Way (''dao''). As such, this influential monk held that would should begin one's studies with this sutra: "The Śūraṃgama Sūtra has the best order [in discussing Buddhist teaching], one should read it first."Ma, Yungfen (2011), pp. 126-128 He also used the sutra to defend his promotion of the dual practice of Zen, Chan and Pure Land Buddhism, Pure Land, as well as to argue for the unity of all Buddhist teachings (including Chinese Esoteric Buddhism, Esoteric Buddhism and Vinaya). In this period, scholarly engagement with the ''Śūraṃgama Sūtra'' played a significant role in the broader Buddhist revival. Other influential figures who wrote commentaries on the ''Śūraṃgama'' were Hanshan Deqing (who is said to have attained enlightenment through the sutra), Zibo Zhenke (1543–1603), Ouyi Zhixu, and Youxi Chuandeng. Chuandeng relied on the sutra to revive the Tiantai school and wrote various commentaries on it.Ma, Yungfen (2011), p. 9 Hanshan Deqing captured the spirit of the Ming era's attachment to the sutra when he wrote:
[The Śūraṃgama Sūtra] has thorough insight into the origin of the one-mind and includes all the dharmas to the utmost extent. No scripture surpasses the extensiveness and completion of this sutra.Ma, Yungfen (2011), p. 125.
The contemporary Chán-master Venerable Hsu Yun wrote a commentary on the ''Śūraṅgama Sūtra''. Venerable Hsuan Hua was a major modern proponent of and commentator on the ''Śūraṅgama Sūtra.'' According to Hsuan Hua:


Korea

The ''Śūraṅgama Sūtra'' was also important in
Korean Buddhism Korean Buddhism is distinguished from other forms of Buddhism by its attempt to resolve what its early practitioners saw as inconsistencies within the Mahayana Buddhist traditions that they received from foreign countries. To address this, they ...
. It became a required text for Korea's monastic examination system during the Joseon, Joseon period. The ''Śūraṅgama'' remains one of the most influential sources in the advanced curriculum of Korean Seon, Korean Sŏn monasteries, along with the '' Awakening of Faith'' and the ''Vajrasamadhi-sutra, Vajrasamadhi sutra''.


Japan

The Japanese Zen Buddhist Dōgen held that the sutra was not an authentic Indian text. But he also drew on the text, commenting on the ''Śūraṅgama'' verse "when someone gives rise to Truth by returning to the Source, the whole of space in all ten quarters falls away and vanishes" as follows:


Notes

Note: Several notes are Chinese, due to the international character of Wikipedia. Help in translation is welcome. ''Chinese texts''


References


Sources



The Śūraṅgama Sūtra Translation Committee of the Buddhist Text Translation Society. (2009). ''The Śūraṅgama Sūtra: With Excerpts from the Commentary by the Venerable Master Hsüan Hua: A New Translation.'' Ukiah, CA, USA: Buddhist Text Translation Society.. * * * * * * * *
Charles Luk, Buddha Dharma Education Association Inc.
* * *


External links

*
The Śūraṅgama Sūtra: With Excerpts from the Commentary by the Venerable Master Hsüan Hua: A New Translation (2012).

Ukiah, CA, USA: Buddhist Text Translation Society

The '
in Indonesian translated by Karma Samten
The ' in English with commentaries from Master Han Shan
translated by Charles Luk
The ' text with commentaries from Tripitaka Master Hsuan Hua

The ' exposition by Living Buddha Lian Sheng




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