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Prompt Gamma Neutron Activation Analysis
Prompt-gamma neutron activation analysis (PGAA) is a very widely applicable technique for determining the presence and amount of many elements simultaneously in samples ranging in size from micrograms to many grams. It is a non-destructive method, and the chemical form and shape of the sample are relatively unimportant. Typical measurements take from a few minutes to several hours per sample. The technique can be described as follows. The sample is continuously irradiated with a beam of neutrons. The constituent elements of the sample absorb some of these neutrons and emit prompt gamma rays which are measured with a gamma ray spectrometer. The energies of these gamma rays identify the neutron-capturing elements, while the intensities of the peaks at these energies reveal their concentrations. The amount of analyte element is given by the ratio of count rate of the characteristic peak in the sample to the rate in a known mass of the appropriate elemental standard irradiated under t ...
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Neutron
The neutron is a subatomic particle, symbol or , that has no electric charge, and a mass slightly greater than that of a proton. The Discovery of the neutron, neutron was discovered by James Chadwick in 1932, leading to the discovery of nuclear fission in 1938, the first self-sustaining nuclear reactor (Chicago Pile-1, 1942) and the first nuclear weapon (Trinity (nuclear test), Trinity, 1945). Neutrons are found, together with a similar number of protons in the atomic nucleus, nuclei of atoms. Atoms of a chemical element that differ only in neutron number are called isotopes. Free neutrons are produced copiously in nuclear fission and nuclear fusion, fusion. They are a primary contributor to the nucleosynthesis of chemical elements within stars through fission, fusion, and neutron capture processes. Neutron stars, formed from massive collapsing stars, consist of neutrons at the density of atomic nuclei but a total mass more than the Sun. Neutron properties and interactions ar ...
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Prompt Gamma Ray Emission
Prompt may refer to: Computing * Command prompt, characters indicating the computer is ready to accept input * Command Prompt, also known as cmd.exe or cmd, the command-line interpreter in some operating systems * Prompt (natural language), instructions issued to a computer system (such as a text-to-image artificial intelligence) in the form of written or spoken language. Other uses * Project Resource Organisation Management Planning Techniques, a project management method; the predecessor to PRINCE2 * Prompt , a source of nitrogen oxides * PROMPT, the Performing arts ephemera collection at the National Library of Australia * PROMPT Telescopes (Panchromatic Robotic Optical Monitoring and Polarimetry Telescopes), Chile * Prompter (theatre), sometimes prompt, one who prompts an actor if they forget their line See also * * * Prompt neutron, in nuclear engineering **Prompt criticality In nuclear engineering, prompt criticality is the criticality (the state in which a nuclear ...
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Gamma Ray Spectrometer
A gamma-ray spectrometer (GRS) is an instrument for measuring the distribution (or spectrum—see figure) of the intensity of gamma radiation versus the energy of each photon. The study and analysis of gamma-ray spectra for scientific and technical use is called gamma spectroscopy, and gamma-ray spectrometers are the instruments which observe and collect such data. Because the energy of each photon of EM radiation is proportional to its frequency, gamma rays have sufficient energy that they are typically observed by counting individual photons. Some notable gamma-ray spectrometers are Gammasphere, AGATA, and GRETINA. Gamma-ray spectroscopy Atomic nuclei have an energy-level structure somewhat analogous to the energy levels of atoms, so that they may emit (or absorb) photons of particular energies, much as atoms do, but at energies that are thousands to millions of times higher than those typically studied in optical spectroscopy. (Note that photons in the short-wavelength ...
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Bulk Material Analyzer
{{No footnotes, date=April 2024 The term bulk material analyzer is the generic noun for that device which fits around a conveyor belt and conducts real-time elemental analysis of the material on the belt. Other names often found for such a device include ''belt analyzer'', ''crossbelt analyzer'' and ''elemental analyzer''. This product first found popularity in the cement industry during the 1990s, and today most new cement plants include at least one analyzer, if not two. Cement industry A couple of applications predominate for the bulk material analyzer in cement production. Stockpile management One is known as "stockpile management," whereby an analyzer located upstream of the pile is able to track the cumulative chemistry of the pile. This allows the operator to direct haul trucks to different sections of the quarry in a way that will result in the final elemental composition of the pile close to target. Raw mix proportioning A second application in cement for the bulk materi ...
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Cement
A cement is a binder, a chemical substance used for construction that sets, hardens, and adheres to other materials to bind them together. Cement is seldom used on its own, but rather to bind sand and gravel ( aggregate) together. Cement mixed with fine aggregate produces mortar for masonry, or with sand and gravel, produces concrete. Concrete is the most widely used material in existence and is behind only water as the planet's most-consumed resource. Cements used in construction are usually inorganic, often lime- or calcium silicate-based, and are either hydraulic or less commonly non-hydraulic, depending on the ability of the cement to set in the presence of water (see hydraulic and non-hydraulic lime plaster). Hydraulic cements (e.g., Portland cement) set and become adhesive through a chemical reaction between the dry ingredients and water. The chemical reaction results in mineral hydrates that are not very water-soluble. This allows setting in wet conditions or u ...
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Coal Analyzer
Coal analyzers are bulk material analyzers used by coal producers, coal preparation plants, and coal-fired power plants to determine coal quality in real time. Coal quality parameters of greatest interest include ash, moisture, sulfur, and energy density (also known as heat content). Although most coal operations can obtain this information about coal quality by taking physical samples, preparing the samples, and analyzing them with laboratory equipment, these processes often involve a time lag of up to 24 hours from gathering the sample to final analysis results. In contrast, coal analyzers provide analysis information each minute on material being transported by conveyor either at the mine or the power plant. This timely coal quality information in turn allows the operator to improve his process by taking timely process control actions, such as sorting, blending, coal homogenization, or prep plant control. There are several different types of coal analyzers. Some of the more s ...
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Mineral
In geology and mineralogy, a mineral or mineral species is, broadly speaking, a solid substance with a fairly well-defined chemical composition and a specific crystal structure that occurs naturally in pure form.John P. Rafferty, ed. (2011): Minerals'; p. 1. In the series ''Geology: Landforms, Minerals, and Rocks''. Rosen Publishing Group. The Geology, geological definition of mineral normally excludes compounds that occur only in living organisms. However, some minerals are often biogenic (such as calcite) or organic compounds in the sense of chemistry (such as mellite). Moreover, living organisms often synthesize inorganic minerals (such as hydroxylapatite) that also occur in rocks. The concept of mineral is distinct from rock (geology), rock, which is any bulk solid geologic material that is relatively homogeneous at a large enough scale. A rock may consist of one type of mineral or may be an aggregate (geology), aggregate of two or more different types of minerals, spaci ...
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Analytical Chemistry
Analytical skill, Analytical chemistry studies and uses instruments and methods to Separation process, separate, identify, and Quantification (science), quantify matter. In practice, separation, identification or quantification may constitute the entire analysis or be combined with another method. Separation isolates analytes. Qualitative inorganic analysis, Qualitative analysis identifies analytes, while Quantitative analysis (chemistry), quantitative analysis determines the numerical amount or concentration. Analytical chemistry consists of classical, wet chemistry, wet chemical methods and modern analytical techniques. Classical qualitative methods use separations such as Precipitation (chemistry), precipitation, Extraction (chemistry), extraction, and distillation. Identification may be based on differences in color, odor, melting point, boiling point, solubility, radioactivity or reactivity. Classical quantitative analysis uses mass or volume changes to quantify amount. Ins ...
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