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Smith's Laws
In geology, Smith's laws are two rules, formulated by William Smith (1769–1839), which aid in the determination of geological succession. They are fundamental to the production of geological maps. The laws Both laws were first published by Smith in ''Strata Identified by Fossils'', 1816–1819. Smith's first law Smith's first law is the Principle of Superposition. This states that newer rock beds will lie on top of older rock beds unless the succession has been overturned. Overturning of the beds causes the succession order to be reversed. This can be caused by folding that is so severe that the beds are moved past the perpendicular. Beds can also be put out of order by an overthrust thrust fault (Jackson, p. 128). Smith's second law Smith's second law is the Law of Strata identified by fossils. This states that each stratum in the succession contains a distinctive set of fossils. This law allows beds to be identified as belonging to the same stratum even wh ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
William Smith (geologist)
William 'Strata' Smith (23 March 1769 – 28 August 1839) was an English geologist, credited with creating the first detailed, nationwide geological map of any country. At the time his map was first published he was overlooked by the scientific community; his relatively humble education and family connections prevented him from mixing easily in learned society. Financially ruined, Smith spent time in debtors' prison. It was only late in his life that Smith received recognition for his accomplishments, and became known as the "Father of English Geology". Early life Smith was born on 23 March 1769, in Churchill, Oxfordshire, the son of John Smith (1735–1777), the village blacksmith, and his wife Ann (''née'' Smith; 1745–1807). His father died when Smith was eight years old, and he and his siblings were raised by his uncle, a farmer also named William Smith. Largely self-educated, Smith was intelligent and observant, read widely from an early age, and showed an aptitude for mat ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Succession (geology)
In geology, a succession is a series of strata or rock units in chronological order. Rock successions can be seen in cross sections through rock, for example in a road cut or cliff. With sedimentary layers of rocks, newer units will be above older units, except in cases of inversion. This paradigm is also called faunal succession and fossil succession. William Smith's "discovery that strata may be identified by the fossils they contain became known as the law of faunal succession." As a general rule: In this way, "succession became a unifying principle by which rock units are categorized and recognized widely." This "general principle called the ''Law of Fossil Succession'': The kinds of animals and plants found as fossils change through time. When we find the same kinds of fossils in rocks from different places, we know that the rocks are the same age." There is a technical distinction between succession and ''sequence'' that is important to geologists: succession is ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Geological Map
A geological map or geologic map is a special-purpose map made to show various geological features. Rock (geology), Rock units or stratum, geologic strata are shown by color or symbols. Bed (geology), Bedding planes and structural features such as fault (geology), faults, fold (geology), folds, are shown with strike and dip or trend and plunge symbols which give three-dimensional orientations features. Stratigraphy, Stratigraphic contour lines may be used to illustrate the surface of a selected stratum illustrating the subsurface topography, topographic trends of the strata. Isopach maps detail the variations in thickness of stratigraphic units. It is not always possible to properly show this when the strata are extremely fractured, mixed, in some discontinuities, or where they are otherwise disturbed. Symbols Lithologies Rock units are typically represented by colors. Instead of (or in addition to) colors, certain symbols can be used. Different geological mapping agencies an ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Fold (geology)
In structural geology, a fold is a stack of originally planar surfaces, such as sedimentary rock, sedimentary stratum, strata, that are bent or curved (''"folded"'') during permanent deformation (engineering), deformation. Folds in rocks vary in size from microscopic crinkles to mountain-sized folds. They occur as single isolated folds or in periodic sets (known as ''fold trains''). wikt:synsedimentary, Synsedimentary folds are those formed during sedimentary deposition. Folds form under varied conditions of stress (physics), stress, pore pressure, and temperature gradient, as evidenced by their presence in soft sedimentary rock, sediments, the full spectrum of metamorphic rocks, and even as primary flow structures in some igneous rocks. A set of folds distributed on a regional scale constitutes a fold belt, a common feature of orogeny, orogenic zones. Folds are commonly formed by shortening of existing layers, but may also be formed as a result of displacement on a non-planar f ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Thrust Fault
A thrust fault is a break in the Earth's crust, across which older rocks are pushed above younger rocks. Thrust geometry and nomenclature Reverse faults A thrust fault is a type of reverse fault that has a dip of 45 degrees or less. If the angle of the fault plane is lower (often less than 15 degrees from the horizontal) and the displacement of the overlying block is large (often in the kilometer range) the fault is called an ''overthrust'' or ''overthrust fault''. Erosion can remove part of the overlying block, creating a ''fenster'' (or ''window'') – when the underlying block is exposed only in a relatively small area. When erosion removes most of the overlying block, leaving island-like remnants resting on the lower block, the remnants are called ''klippen'' (singular '' klippe''). Blind thrust faults If the fault plane terminates before it reaches the Earth's surface, it is called a ''blind thrust'' fault. Because of the lack of surface evidence, blind thrust fa ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Stratum (geology)
In geology and related fields, a stratum (: strata) is a layer of rock or sediment characterized by certain lithologic properties or attributes that distinguish it from adjacent layers from which it is separated by visible surfaces known as either '' bedding surfaces'' or ''bedding planes''.Salvador, A. ed., 1994. ''International stratigraphic guide: a guide to stratigraphic classification, terminology, and procedure. 2nd ed.'' Boulder, Colorado, The Geological Society of America, Inc., 215 pp. . Prior to the publication of the International Stratigraphic Guide, older publications have defined a stratum as being either equivalent to a single bed or composed of a number of beds; as a layer greater than 1 cm in thickness and constituting a part of a bed; or a general term that includes both ''bed'' and ''lamina''.Neuendorf, K.K.E., Mehl, Jr., J.P., and Jackson, J.A. , eds., 2005. ''Glossary of Geology'' 5th ed. Alexandria, Virginia, American Geological Institute. 779 pp. . ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Horizon (geology)
In geology, a horizon is either a bedding surface where there is marked change in the lithology within a sequence of sedimentary or volcanic rocks, or a distinctive layer or thin bed with a characteristic lithology or fossil content within a sequence. Examples of the former can include things such as volcanic eruptions as well as things such as meteorite impacts and tsunamis. Examples of the latter include things such as ice ages and other large climate events, as well as large but temporary geological features and changes such as inland oceans. In the interpretation of seismic reflection data, horizons are the reflectors (or seismic events) picked on individual profiles. These reflectors represent a change in rock properties across a boundary between two layers of rock, particularly seismic velocity and density. It can also represent changes in the density of the material and the composition of it and the pressure under which it was produced. Thus, not only do the properties ch ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Canal Engineer
A canal engineer is a civil engineer responsible for planning (architectural and otherwise) related to the construction of a canal. Canal engineers include: China * Yu the Great (c.2200BCE-c.2100BCE), first Dynast of China, founder of the first dynasty, who dedicated his life establishing flood control structures across the Chinese Hegemony, including canals, establishing the new hegemony in the process, across flood ruined competing kingdoms. * Ximen Bao * Li Bing (c. 3rd century BC), Dujiangyan France * Barnabé Brisson, Canal de la Marne au Rhin * Louis Maurice Adolphe Linant de Bellefonds (1799-1883), Suez Canal * Philippe Bertrand, Canal du Rhône au Rhin * Guy Bouessel, Canal de Nantes à Brest * Pierre du Buat, Philippe Bertrand.Canal de Neufossé * Joseph Cachin, Canal de Caen à la mer * Jean-Antoine Chaptal, Canal des Ardennes * Charles-Étienne Collignon, Canal de la Marne au Rhin * Pierre-Simon Girard, Canal Saint-Martin * Louis Didier Jousselin, ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Mineral Surveyor
Mining engineering is the extraction of minerals from the ground. It is associated with many other disciplines, such as mineral processing, exploration, excavation, geology, metallurgy, geotechnical engineering and surveying. A mining engineer may manage any phase of mining operations, from exploration and discovery of the mineral resources, through feasibility study, mine design, development of plans, production and operations to mine closure. History of mining engineering From prehistoric times to the present, mining has played a significant role in the existence of the human race. Since the beginning of civilization, people have used stone and ceramics and, later, metals found on or close to the Earth's surface. These were used to manufacture early tools and weapons. For example, high-quality flint found in northern France and southern England were used to set fire and break rock. Flint mines have been found in chalk areas where seams of the stone were followed underground by ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Bath, Somerset
Bath (Received Pronunciation, RP: , ) is a city in Somerset, England, known for and named after its Roman Baths (Bath), Roman-built baths. At the 2021 census, the population was 94,092. Bath is in the valley of the River Avon, Bristol, River Avon, west of London and southeast of Bristol. The city became a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987, and was later added to the transnational World Heritage Site known as the "Great Spa Towns of Europe" in 2021. Bath is also the largest city and settlement in Somerset. The city became a spa with the Latin name ' ("the waters of Sulis") 60 AD when the Romans built Roman Baths (Bath), baths and a temple in the valley of the River Avon, although List of geothermal springs in the United Kingdom, hot springs were known even before then. Bath Abbey was founded in the 7th century and became a religious centre; the building was rebuilt in the 12th and 16th centuries. In the 17th century, claims were made for the curative properties of water ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
George Bellas Greenough
George Bellas Greenough FRS FGS (18 January 1778 – 2 April 1855) was a pioneering English geologist. He is best known as a synthesizer of geology rather than as an original researcher. Trained as a lawyer, he was a talented speaker and his annual addresses as founding president of the Geological Society of London were influential in identifying and guiding contemporary geological research. He also courted controversy, after using his presidential address in 1834 to cast aspersions on a paper on great earthquakes by Maria Graham. Greenough advocated an empirical approach to the early science; his scepticism of theoretical thinking courted controversy amongst some contemporaries, especially his doubts of the usefulness of fossils in correlating strata. He compiled a geological map of England and Wales, published in 1820, and in the penultimate year of his life used similar methods to produce the first geological map of British India. Greenough characterised himself as follo ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Geochronology
Geochronology is the science of determining the age of rocks, fossils, and sediments using signatures inherent in the rocks themselves. Absolute geochronology can be accomplished through radioactive isotopes, whereas relative geochronology is provided by tools such as paleomagnetism and stable isotope ratios. By combining multiple geochronological (and biostratigraphic) indicators the precision of the recovered age can be improved. Geochronology is different in application from biostratigraphy, which is the science of assigning sedimentary rocks to a known geological period via describing, cataloging and comparing fossil floral and faunal assemblages. Biostratigraphy does not ''directly'' provide an absolute age determination of a rock, but merely places it within an ''interval'' of time at which that fossil assemblage is known to have coexisted. Both disciplines work together hand in hand, however, to the point where they share the same system of naming strata (rock layers) and ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
