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Münzfuß
A ''Münzfuß'' () is an historical term, used especially in the Holy Roman Empire, for an official minting or coinage standard that determines how many coins of a given type were to be struck from a specified unit of weight of precious metal (the ''Münzgrundgewicht'' or coin base weight). The ''Münzfuß'', or ''Fuß'' ("foot") for short in numismatics, determined a coin's fineness, i.e. how much of a precious metal it would contain. Mintmaster Julian Eberhard Volckmar Claus defined the standard in his 1753 work, ''Kurzgefaßte Anleitung zum Probieren und Münzen'' ("Brief Guide to Proving and Coining"), as follows: "The appropriate proportion of metals and the weight of the coin, measured according to their internal and external worth, or determined according to their quality, additives and fineness, number and weight, is called the ''Münzfuß''." Many coins do not consist exclusively of the precious metal that the respective standard is based on. Gold and silver coins are ofte ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Coin Base Weight
A coin base weight (''Münzgrundgewicht'') is a mathematical reference for the Mint (facility), minting of coins that was used in the monetary systems of the Holy Roman Empire. In conjunction with the coin standard (''Münzfuß''), the coin base weight indicates how many coins are to be minted from a specified standard weight.''Politisches Handbuch'' (1871), p. 205. Development Carolingian Pound The first coin base weight to be specified was the Carolingian Pound, a pound of pure silver weighing 407.92 g.Hauck & Hauck (1875), pp. 15–16. Cologne Mark The Carolingian Pound was superseded by what became the most common coin base weight in Central Europe from the Middle Ages to the 19th century. This was the Cologne Mark of 233.779 grams of silver. Silver coins of different weights were minted from this standard weight. If ''Thalers'' were minted from the Cologne Mark to, say, a 10 ''Thaler'' standard (called ''Fuß'' i.e. "foot"), the ''Thaler'' contained approx. 23.4 grams o ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Holy Roman Empire
The Holy Roman Empire, also known as the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation after 1512, was a polity in Central and Western Europe, usually headed by the Holy Roman Emperor. It developed in the Early Middle Ages, and lasted for a millennium until its Dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, dissolution in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars. For most of its history the Empire comprised the entirety of the modern countries of Germany, Czechia, Austria, the Netherlands, Belgium, Switzerland, Slovenia, and Luxembourg, most of north-central Italy, and large parts of modern-day east France and west Poland. On 25 December 800, Pope Leo III crowned the Frankish king Charlemagne Roman emperor, reviving the title more than three centuries after the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476. The title lapsed in 924, but was revived in 962 when Otto I, OttoI was crowned emperor by Pope John XII, as Charlemagne's and the Carolingian Empire's successor. From 962 until the 12th century, the empire ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Cyclades Islands
The CYCLADES computer network () was a French research network created in the early 1970s. It was one of the pioneering networks experimenting with the concept of packet switching and, unlike the ARPANET, was explicitly designed to facilitate internetworking. The CYCLADES network was the first to make the hosts responsible for the reliable delivery of data, rather than this being a centralized service of the network itself. Datagrams were exchanged on the network using transport protocols that do not guarantee reliable delivery, but only attempt best-effort. To empower the network leaves the hosts to perform error-correction, the network ensured end-to-end protocol transparency, a concept later to be known as the end-to-end principle. This simplified network design, reduced network latency, and reduced the opportunities for single point failures. The experience with these concepts led to the design of key features of the Internet Protocol in the ARPANET project. The network was ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Pound (mass)
The pound or pound-mass is a unit of mass used in both the British imperial and United States customary systems of measurement. Various definitions have been used; the most common today is the international avoirdupois pound, which is legally defined as exactly , and which is divided into 16 avoirdupois ounces. The international standard symbol for the avoirdupois pound is lb; an alternative symbol (when there might otherwise be a risk of confusion with the pound-force) is lbm (for most pound definitions), # ( chiefly in the U.S.), and or ̶ (specifically for the apothecaries' pound). The unit is descended from the Roman (hence the symbol ''lb'', descended from the scribal abbreviation, '). The English word ''pound'' comes from the Roman ('the weight measured in '), and is cognate with, among others, German , Dutch , and Swedish . These units are now designated as historical and are no longer in common usage, being replaced by the metric system. Usage of the un ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Carolingian Monetary System
The Carolingian monetary system, also called the Carolingian coinage system''The later medieval and modern coinages of continental Europe'' at britannica.com. Retrieved 20 June 2022 or just the Carolingian system, was a currency structure introduced by Charlemagne in the late 8th century as part of a major reform, the effects of which subsequently dominated much of Europe, including Britain, for centuries. It is characterised by having three denominations with values in the ratio 240:12:1, the units of which went under different names in the different languages, but which corresponded to the Latin terms ''libra'' (pound), ''solidus'' (shilling) and ''denarius'' (penny), respectively. The currency reform carried out by Emperor Charlemagne around 793/794 was of crucial importance ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Argenteus
The ''argenteus'' ( ''argentei'', 'of silver') was a silver coin produced by the Roman Empire from the time of Diocletian's coinage reform in AD 294 to ca. AD 310. It was of similar weight and fineness to the denarius of the time of Nero. The coin was produced at a theoretical weight of 1/96th of a Roman pound (about 3 grams), as indicated by the Roman numeral XCVI on the coin's reverse. One aureus equaled 25 argentei and one argenteus equaled 8 folles. The term ''argenteus'', meaning "of silver" in Latin, was first used in Pliny's ''Natural History'' in the phrase ''argenteus nummus'' (silver coin). The 4th-century historian Ammianus uses the same phrase, though there is no indication that this is the official name for a denomination. The ''Historia Augusta'' uses the phrase to refer to several fictitious coins. See also * Edict on Maximum Prices * Roman currency * Solidus (coin) The ''solidus'' (Latin 'solid'; : ''solidi'') or ''nomisma'' () was a highly pur ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Diocletian
Diocletian ( ; ; ; 242/245 – 311/312), nicknamed Jovius, was Roman emperor from 284 until his abdication in 305. He was born Diocles to a family of low status in the Roman province of Dalmatia (Roman province), Dalmatia. As with other Illyrian emperors, Illyrian soldiers of the period, Diocles rose through the ranks of the military early in his career, serving under Aurelian and Probus (emperor), Probus, and eventually becoming a Roman cavalry, cavalry commander for the army of Emperor Carus. After the deaths of Carus and his son Numerian on a campaign in Sasanian Empire, Persia, Diocles was proclaimed emperor by the troops, taking the name "Diocletianus". The title was also claimed by Carus's surviving son, Carinus, but he was defeated by Diocletian in the Battle of the Margus. Diocletian's reign stabilized the empire and ended the Crisis of the Third Century. He initiated the process of the Roman Empire split and appointed fellow officer Maximian as ''Augustus (title), Augu ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Nero
Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( ; born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus; 15 December AD 37 – 9 June AD 68) was a Roman emperor and the final emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, reigning from AD 54 until his death in AD 68. Nero was born at Antium in AD 37, the son of Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (father of Nero), Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Agrippina the Younger (great-granddaughter of the emperor Augustus). Nero was three when his father died. By the time Nero turned eleven, his mother married Emperor Claudius, who then Adoption in ancient Rome, adopted Nero as his heir. Upon Claudius' death in AD 54, Nero ascended to the throne with the backing of the Praetorian Guard and the Senate. In the early years of his reign, Nero was advised and guided by his mother Agrippina, his tutor Seneca the Younger, and his praetorian prefect Sextus Afranius Burrus, but sought to rule independently and rid himself of restraining influences. The power ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Roman Republic
The Roman Republic ( ) was the era of Ancient Rome, classical Roman civilisation beginning with Overthrow of the Roman monarchy, the overthrow of the Roman Kingdom (traditionally dated to 509 BC) and ending in 27 BC with the establishment of the Roman Empire following the War of Actium. During this period, Rome's control expanded from the city's immediate surroundings to hegemony over the entire Mediterranean Sea, Mediterranean world. Roman society at the time was primarily a cultural mix of Latins (Italic tribe), Latin and Etruscan civilization, Etruscan societies, as well as of Sabine, Oscan, and Greek cultural elements, which is especially visible in the Ancient Roman religion and List of Roman deities, its pantheon. Its political organisation developed at around the same time as direct democracy in Ancient Greece, with collective and annual magistracies, overseen by Roman Senate, a senate. There were annual elections, but the republican system was an elective olig ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Denarius
The ''denarius'' (; : ''dēnāriī'', ) was the standard Ancient Rome, Roman silver coin from its introduction in the Second Punic War to the reign of Gordian III (AD 238–244), when it was gradually replaced by the ''antoninianus''. It continued to be minted in very small quantities, likely for ceremonial purposes, until and through the Tetrarchy (293–313). The word ''dēnārius'' is derived from the Latin ''dēnī'' "containing ten", as its value was originally of 10 ''As (Roman coin), assēs''.Its value was increased to 16 assēs in the middle of the 2nd century BC. The word for "money" descends from it in Italian (''denaro''), Slovene (''denar''), Portuguese (''dinheiro''), and Spanish (''dinero''). Its name also survives in the dinar currency. Its symbol is represented in Unicode as 𐆖 (U+10196), a numeral monogram that appeared on the obverse in the Republican period, denoting the 10 ''asses'' ("X") to 1 ''denarius'' ("I") conversion rate. However it can also be re ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Drachm
The dram (alternative British spelling drachm; apothecary symbol ʒ or ℨ; abbreviated dr) Earlier version first published in '' New English Dictionary'', 1897.National Institute of Standards and Technology (October 2011). Butcher, Tina; Cook, Steve; Crown, Linda et al. eds"Appendix C – General Tables of Units of Measurement"(PDF)''Specifications, Tolerances, and Other Technical Requirements for Weighing and Measuring Devices'' NIST Handbook. 44 (2012 ed.). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Commerce, Technology Administration, National Institute of Standards and Technology. ISSNbr>0271-4027 OCLC . Retrieved 1 July 2012. is a unit of mass in the avoirdupois system, and both a unit of mass and a unit of volume in the apothecaries' system. It was originally both a coin and a weight in ancient Greece. The unit of volume is more correctly called a fluid dram, fluid drachm, fluidram or fluidrachm (abbreviated fl dr, ƒ 3, or fʒ). Ancient unit of mass *The Attic Greek drach ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Attica (region)
Attica ( ; , ) is an administrative regions of Greece, administrative region of Greece, that encompasses the entire Athens metropolitan area, the core city of which is the country's capital city, capital and Cities of Greece, largest city, Athens. The region is coextensive with the former Attica Prefecture of Central Greece (geographic region), Central Greece and covers a greater area than the historical region of Attica. Overview Located on the eastern edge of Central Greece (geographic region), Central Greece, Attica covers about 3,808 square kilometres. In addition to Athens, it contains within its area the cities of Elefsina, Megara, Laurium, and Marathon, Greece, Marathon, as well as a small part of the Peloponnese peninsula and the islands of Salamis Island, Salamis, Aegina, Angistri, Poros, Hydra, Saronic Islands, Hydra, Spetses, Kythira, and Antikythera. About 3,790,000 people live in the region, of whom more than 95% are inhabitants of the Athens metropolitan area. In 20 ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
