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Grand Unified Theory
A Grand Unified Theory (GUT) is any Mathematical model, model in particle physics that merges the electromagnetism, electromagnetic, weak interaction, weak, and strong interaction, strong fundamental interaction, forces (the three gauge theory, gauge interactions of the Standard Model) into a single force at high energy, energies. Although this Unification (physics), unified force has not been directly observed, many GUT models theorize its existence. If the unification of these three interactions is possible, it raises the possibility that there was a grand unification epoch in the Chronology of the universe#Very early universe, very early universe in which these three fundamental interactions were not yet distinct. Experiments have confirmed that at high energy, the electromagnetic interaction and weak interaction unify into a single combined electroweak interaction. GUT models predict that at even grand unification energy, higher energy, the strong and electroweak interaction ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Mathematical Model
A mathematical model is an abstract and concrete, abstract description of a concrete system using mathematics, mathematical concepts and language of mathematics, language. The process of developing a mathematical model is termed ''mathematical modeling''. Mathematical models are used in applied mathematics and in the natural sciences (such as physics, biology, earth science, chemistry) and engineering disciplines (such as computer science, electrical engineering), as well as in non-physical systems such as the social sciences (such as economics, psychology, sociology, political science). It can also be taught as a subject in its own right. The use of mathematical models to solve problems in business or military operations is a large part of the field of operations research. Mathematical models are also used in music, linguistics, and philosophy (for example, intensively in analytic philosophy). A model may help to explain a system and to study the effects of different components, ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Theory Of Everything
A theory of everything (TOE), final theory, ultimate theory, unified field theory, or master theory is a hypothetical singular, all-encompassing, coherent theoretical physics, theoretical framework of physics that fully explains and links together all aspects of the universe. Finding a theory of everything is one of the major unsolved problems in physics. Over the past few centuries, two theoretical frameworks have been developed that, together, most closely resemble a theory of everything. These two theories upon which all modern physics rests are general relativity and quantum mechanics. General relativity is a theoretical framework that only focuses on gravity for understanding the universe in regions of both large scale and high mass: planets, stars, galaxies, Galaxy cluster, clusters of galaxies, etc. On the other hand, quantum mechanics is a theoretical framework that focuses primarily on three non-gravitational forces for understanding the universe in regions of both very ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Simple Group
SIMPLE Group Limited is a conglomeration of separately run companies that each has its core area in International Consulting. The core business areas are Legal Services, Fiduciary Activities, Banking Intermediation and Corporate Service. The date of incorporation is listed as 1999 by Companies House of Gibraltar, who class it as a holding company A holding company is a company whose primary business is holding a controlling interest in the Security (finance), securities of other companies. A holding company usually does not produce goods or services itself. Its purpose is to own Share ...; however it is understood that SIMPLE Group's business and trading activities date to the second part of the 90s, probably as an incorporated body. SIMPLE Group Limited is a conglomerate that cultivate secrecy, they are not listed on any Stock Exchange and the group is owned by a complicated series of offshore trusts. The Sunday Times stated that SIMPLE Group's interests could be eva ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Family Symmetries
In particle physics, the family symmetries or horizontal symmetries are various discrete, global, or local symmetries between quark-lepton families or generations. In contrast to the intrafamily or vertical symmetries (collected in the conventional Standard Model and Grand Unified Theories) which operate inside each family, these symmetries presumably underlie physics of the family flavors. They may be treated as a new set of quantum charges assigned to different families of quarks and leptons. Spontaneous symmetry breaking of these symmetries is believed to lead to an adequate description of the flavor mixing of quarks and leptons of different families. This is certainly one of the major problems that presently confront particle physics. Despite its great success in explaining the basic interactions of nature, the Standard Model still suffers from an absence of such a unique ability to explain the flavor mixing angles or weak mixing angles (as they are conventionally referr ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Fermion
In particle physics, a fermion is a subatomic particle that follows Fermi–Dirac statistics. Fermions have a half-integer spin (spin 1/2, spin , Spin (physics)#Higher spins, spin , etc.) and obey the Pauli exclusion principle. These particles include all quarks and leptons and all composite particles made of an even and odd, odd number of these, such as all baryons and many atoms and atomic nucleus, nuclei. Fermions differ from bosons, which obey Bose–Einstein statistics. Some fermions are elementary particles (such as electrons), and some are composite particles (such as protons). For example, according to the spin-statistics theorem in Theory of relativity, relativistic quantum field theory, particles with integer Spin (physics), spin are bosons. In contrast, particles with half-integer spin are fermions. In addition to the spin characteristic, fermions have another specific property: they possess conserved baryon or lepton quantum numbers. Therefore, what is usually referr ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Magnetic Monopole
In particle physics, a magnetic monopole is a hypothetical particle that is an isolated magnet with only one magnetic pole (a north pole without a south pole or vice versa). A magnetic monopole would have a net north or south "magnetic charge". Modern interest in the concept stems from high-energy physics, particle theories, notably the grand unified theory, grand unified and superstring theory, superstring theories, which predict their existence. The known elementary particles that have electric charge are electric monopoles. Magnetism in bar magnets and electromagnets is not caused by magnetic monopoles, and indeed, there is no known experimental or observational evidence that magnetic monopoles exist. A magnetic monopole is not necessarily an elementary particle, and models for magnetic monopole production can include (but are not limited to) Spin (physics), spin-0 monopoles or spin-1 massive vector mesons. The term "magnetic monopole" only refers to the nature of the particle ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Pati–Salam Model
In physics, the Pati–Salam model is a Grand Unified Theory (GUT) proposed in 1974 by Jogesh Pati and Abdus Salam. Like other GUTs, its goal is to explain the seeming arbitrariness and complexity of the Standard Model in terms of a simpler, more fundamental theory that unifies what are in the Standard Model disparate particles and forces. The Pati–Salam unification is based on there being four quark color charges, dubbed red, green, blue and violet (or originally lilac), instead of the conventional three, with the new "violet" quark being identified with the leptons. The model also has left–right symmetry and predicts the existence of a high energy right handed weak interaction with heavy W' and Z' bosons and right-handed neutrinos. Originally the fourth color was labelled "lilac" to alliterate with "lepton". Pati–Salam is an alternative to the Georgi–Glashow unification also proposed in 1974. Both can be embedded within an unification model. Core theory The Pa ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Westview Press
Westview Press was an American publishing company headquartered in Boulder, Colorado founded in 1975. Field of work Westview primarily publishes textbooks. History Westview Press was founded by Frederick A. Praeger in 1975. Praeger sold Westview in 1991. Westview was purchased by HarperCollins. HarperCollins and Westview had difficulty working together due to very different corporate cultures and values. Perseus bought Westview in March 1998 from HarperCollins. In April 2016, Perseus Books Group's publishing operations, including Westview, were purchased by Hachette Book Group. Hachette Book Group's Perseus Books Group division sold it to Taylor & Francis Taylor & Francis Group is an international company originating in the United Kingdom that publishes books and academic journals. Its parts include Taylor & Francis, CRC Press, Routledge, F1000 (publisher), F1000 Research and Dovepress. It i ... in 2017. Book series Series published 1975–1990 (Frederick A. ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Neutrino
A neutrino ( ; denoted by the Greek letter ) is an elementary particle that interacts via the weak interaction and gravity. The neutrino is so named because it is electrically neutral and because its rest mass is so small ('' -ino'') that it was long thought to be zero. The rest mass of the neutrino is much smaller than that of the other known elementary particles (excluding massless particles). The weak force has a very short range, the gravitational interaction is extremely weak due to the very small mass of the neutrino, and neutrinos do not participate in the electromagnetic interaction or the strong interaction. Consequently, neutrinos typically pass through normal matter unimpeded and with no detectable effect. Weak interactions create neutrinos in one of three leptonic flavors: # electron neutrino, # muon neutrino, # tau neutrino, Each flavor is associated with the correspondingly named charged lepton. Although neutrinos were long believed to be mas ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Elementary Particle
In particle physics, an elementary particle or fundamental particle is a subatomic particle that is not composed of other particles. The Standard Model presently recognizes seventeen distinct particles—twelve fermions and five bosons. As a consequence of flavor and color combinations and antimatter, the fermions and bosons are known to have 48 and 13 variations, respectively. Among the 61 elementary particles embraced by the Standard Model number: electrons and other leptons, quarks, and the fundamental bosons. Subatomic particles such as protons or neutrons, which contain two or more elementary particles, are known as composite particles. Ordinary matter is composed of atoms, themselves once thought to be indivisible elementary particles. The name ''atom'' comes from the Ancient Greek word ''ἄτομος'' ( atomos) which means ''indivisible'' or ''uncuttable''. Despite the theories about atoms that had existed for thousands of years, the factual existence of ato ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Electric Dipole Moment
The electric dipole moment is a measure of the separation of positive and negative electrical charges within a system: that is, a measure of the system's overall Chemical polarity, polarity. The International System of Units, SI unit for electric dipole moment is the coulomb-metre (C⋅m). The debye (D) is another unit of measurement used in atomic physics and chemistry. Theoretically, an electric dipole is defined by the first-order term of the multipole expansion; it consists of two equal and opposite charges that are infinitesimally close together, although real dipoles have separated charge.Many theorists predict elementary particles can have very tiny electric dipole moments, possibly without separated charge. Such small dipoles make no difference to everyday physics, and have not yet been observed (see ''Electron electric dipole moment''). However, when making measurements at a distance much larger than the charge separation, the dipole gives a good approximation of the actua ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Proton Decay
In particle physics, proton decay is a hypothetical form of particle decay in which the proton decays into lighter subatomic particles, such as a neutral pion and a positron. The proton decay hypothesis was first formulated by Andrei Sakharov in 1967. Despite significant experimental effort, proton decay has never been observed. If it does decay via a positron, the proton's half-life is constrained to be at least . According to the Standard Model, the proton, a type of baryon, is stable because baryon number ( quark number) is conserved (under normal circumstances; see ''Chiral anomaly'' for an exception). Therefore, protons will not decay into other particles on their own, because they are the lightest (and therefore least energetic) baryon. Positron emission and electron capture—forms of radioactive decay in which a proton becomes a neutron—are not proton decay, since the proton interacts with other particles within the atom. Some beyond-the-Standard-Model grand unifi ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
