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Aitken's Delta-squared Process
In numerical analysis, Aitken's delta-squared process or Aitken extrapolation is a series acceleration method, used for accelerating the rate of convergence of a sequence. It is named after Alexander Aitken, who introduced this method in 1926.Alexander Aitken, "On Bernoulli's numerical solution of algebraic equations", ''Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh'' (1926) 46 pp. 289–305. Its early form was known to Seki Kōwa (end of 17th century) and was found for rectification of the circle, i.e. the calculation of π. It is most useful for accelerating the convergence of a sequence that is converging linearly. Definition Given a sequence X = _, one associates with this sequence the new sequence :A X=_, which can, with improved numerical stability, also be written as : (A X)_n = x_n-\frac, or equivalently as :(A X)_n = x_ - \frac = x_ - \frac where :\Delta x_=,\ \Delta x_=, and :\Delta^2 x_n=x_n -2x_ + x_=\Delta x_-\Delta x_,\ for n = 0, 1, 2, 3, \dots \, Obvious ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Numerical Analysis
Numerical analysis is the study of algorithms that use numerical approximation (as opposed to symbolic manipulations) for the problems of mathematical analysis (as distinguished from discrete mathematics). It is the study of numerical methods that attempt at finding approximate solutions of problems rather than the exact ones. Numerical analysis finds application in all fields of engineering and the physical sciences, and in the 21st century also the life and social sciences, medicine, business and even the arts. Current growth in computing power has enabled the use of more complex numerical analysis, providing detailed and realistic mathematical models in science and engineering. Examples of numerical analysis include: ordinary differential equations as found in celestial mechanics (predicting the motions of planets, stars and galaxies), numerical linear algebra in data analysis, and stochastic differential equations and Markov chains for simulating living cells in medicine a ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Operator (mathematics)
In mathematics, an operator is generally a Map_(mathematics), mapping or function (mathematics), function that acts on elements of a space (mathematics), space to produce elements of another space (possibly and sometimes required to be the same space). There is no general definition of an ''operator'', but the term is often used in place of ''function'' when the domain of a function, domain is a set of functions or other structured objects. Also, the domain of an operator is often difficult to be explicitly characterized (for example in the case of an integral operator), and may be extended to related objects (an operator that acts on functions may act also on differential equations whose solutions are functions that satisfy the equation). See Operator (physics) for other examples. The most basic operators are linear maps, which act on vector spaces. Linear operators refer to linear maps whose domain and range are the same space, for example \R^n to \R^n. Such operators oft ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Shanks Transformation
In numerical analysis, the Shanks transformation is a non-linear series acceleration method to increase the rate of convergence of a sequence. This method is named after Daniel Shanks, who rediscovered this sequence transformation in 1955. It was first derived and published by R. Schmidt in 1941.Weniger (2003). Formulation For a sequence \left\_ the series :A = \sum_^\infty a_m\, is to be determined. First, the partial sum A_n is defined as: :A_n = \sum_^n a_m\, and forms a new sequence \left\_. Provided the series converges, A_n will also approach the limit A as n\to\infty. The Shanks transformation S(A_n) of the sequence A_n is the new sequence defined byBender & Orszag (1999), pp. 368–375.Van Dyke (1975), pp. 202–205. :S(A_n) = \frac = A_ - \frac where this sequence S(A_n) often converges more rapidly than the sequence A_n. Further speed-up may be obtained by repeated use of the Shanks transformation, by computing S^2(A_n)=S(S(A_n)), S^3(A_n)=S(S(S(A_n))), etc. ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Sequence Transformation
In mathematics, a sequence transformation is an operator acting on a given space of sequences (a sequence space). Sequence transformations include linear mappings such as convolution with another sequence, and resummation of a sequence and, more generally, are commonly used for series acceleration, that is, for improving the rate of convergence of a slowly convergent sequence or series. Sequence transformations are also commonly used to compute the antilimit of a divergent series numerically, and are used in conjunction with extrapolation methods. Overview Classical examples for sequence transformations include the binomial transform, Möbius transform, Stirling transform and others. Definitions For a given sequence :S=\_,\, the transformed sequence is :\mathbf(S)=S'=\_,\, where the members of the transformed sequence are usually computed from some finite number of members of the original sequence, i.e. :s_n' = T(s_n,s_,\dots,s_) for some k which often depends on n ( ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Richardson Extrapolation
In numerical analysis, Richardson extrapolation is a sequence acceleration method used to improve the rate of convergence of a sequence of estimates of some value A^\ast = \lim_ A(h). In essence, given the value of A(h) for several values of h, we can estimate A^\ast by extrapolating the estimates to h=0. It is named after Lewis Fry Richardson, who introduced the technique in the early 20th century, though the idea was already known to Christiaan Huygens in his calculation of π. In the words of Birkhoff and Rota, "its usefulness for practical computations can hardly be overestimated."Page 126 of Practical applications of Richardson extrapolation include Romberg integration, which applies Richardson extrapolation to the trapezoid rule, and the Bulirsch–Stoer algorithm for solving ordinary differential equations. Example of Richardson extrapolation Suppose that we wish to approximate A^*, and we have a method A(h) that depends on a small parameter h in such a way that A( ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Fixed Point Iteration
In numerical analysis, fixed-point iteration is a method of computing fixed points of a function. More specifically, given a function f defined on the real numbers with real values and given a point x_0 in the domain of f, the fixed-point iteration is :x_=f(x_n), \, n=0, 1, 2, \dots which gives rise to the sequence x_0, x_1, x_2, \dots of iterated function applications x_0, f(x_0), f(f(x_0)), \dots which is hoped to converge to a point x_. If f is continuous, then one can prove that the obtained x_ is a fixed point of f, i.e., :f(x_)=x_ . More generally, the function f can be defined on any metric space with values in that same space. Examples * A first simple and useful example is the Babylonian method for computing the square root of ''a''>0, which consists in taking f(x)=\frac 12\left(\frac ax + x\right), i.e. the mean value of ''x'' and ''a/x'', to approach the limit x = \sqrt a (from whatever starting point x_0 \gg 0 ). This is a special case of Newton's method quoted ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Limit Of A Sequence
As the positive integer n becomes larger and larger, the value n\cdot \sin\left(\tfrac1\right) becomes arbitrarily close to 1. We say that "the limit of the sequence n\cdot \sin\left(\tfrac1\right) equals 1." In mathematics, the limit of a sequence is the value that the terms of a sequence "tend to", and is often denoted using the \lim symbol (e.g., \lim_a_n).Courant (1961), p. 29. If such a limit exists, the sequence is called convergent. A sequence that does not converge is said to be divergent. The limit of a sequence is said to be the fundamental notion on which the whole of mathematical analysis ultimately rests. Limits can be defined in any metric or topological space, but are usually first encountered in the real numbers. History The Greek philosopher Zeno of Elea is famous for formulating paradoxes that involve limiting processes. Leucippus, Democritus, Antiphon, Eudoxus, and Archimedes developed the method of exhaustion, which uses an infinite sequence o ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Rate Of Convergence
In numerical analysis, the order of convergence and the rate of convergence of a convergent sequence are quantities that represent how quickly the sequence approaches its limit. A sequence (x_n) that converges to x^* is said to have ''order of convergence'' q \geq 1 and ''rate of convergence'' \mu if : \lim _ \frac=\mu. The rate of convergence \mu is also called the ''asymptotic error constant''. Note that this terminology is not standardized and some authors will use ''rate'' where this article uses ''order'' (e.g., ). In practice, the rate and order of convergence provide useful insights when using iterative methods for calculating numerical approximations. If the order of convergence is higher, then typically fewer iterations are necessary to yield a useful approximation. Strictly speaking, however, the asymptotic behavior of a sequence does not give conclusive information about any finite part of the sequence. Similar concepts are used for discretization methods. The solu ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Methods Of Computing Square Roots
Methods of computing square roots are numerical analysis algorithms for approximating the principal, or non-negative, square root (usually denoted \sqrt, \sqrt /math>, or S^) of a real number. Arithmetically, it means given S, a procedure for finding a number which when multiplied by itself, yields S; algebraically, it means a procedure for finding the non-negative root of the equation x^2-S=0; geometrically, it means given two line segments, a procedure for constructing their geometric mean. Every real number except zero has two square roots. In addition to the principal square root, there is a negative square root equal in magnitude but opposite in sign to the principal square root, except for zero, which has double square roots of zero. The principal square root of most numbers is an irrational number with an infinite decimal expansion. As a result, the decimal expansion of any such square root can only be computed to some finite-precision approximation. However, even if we ar ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Steffensen's Method
In numerical analysis, Steffensen's method is a root-finding technique named after Johan Frederik Steffensen which is similar to Newton's method. Steffensen's method also achieves quadratic convergence, but without using derivatives as Newton's method does. Simple description The simplest form of the formula for Steffensen's method occurs when it is used to find a zero of a real function ; that is, to find the real value x_\star that satisfies f(x_\star) = 0 . Near the solution x_\star, the function f is supposed to approximately satisfy -1 < f'(x_\star) < 0 ; this condition makes adequate as a correction-function for for finding its ''own'' solution, although it is not required to work efficiently. For some functions, Steffensen's method can work even if this condition is not met, but in such a case, the starting value must be ''very'' close to the actual solution and convergence to t ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Iterated Function
In mathematics, an iterated function is a function (that is, a function from some set to itself) which is obtained by composing another function with itself a certain number of times. The process of repeatedly applying the same function is called iteration. In this process, starting from some initial object, the result of applying a given function is fed again in the function as input, and this process is repeated. For example on the image on the right: :with the circle‑shaped symbol of function composition. Iterated functions are objects of study in computer science, fractals, dynamical systems, mathematics and renormalization group physics. Definition The formal definition of an iterated function on a set ''X'' follows. Let be a set and be a function. Defining as the ''n''-th iterate of (a notation introduced by Hans Heinrich Bürmann and John Frederick William Herschel), where ''n'' is a non-negative integer, by: f^0 ~ \stackrel ~ \operatorname_ ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Fixed Point (mathematics)
A fixed point (sometimes shortened to fixpoint, also known as an invariant point) is a value that does not change under a given transformation. Specifically, in mathematics, a fixed point of a function is an element that is mapped to itself by the function. In physics, the term fixed point can refer to a temperature that can be used as a reproducible reference point, usually defined by a phase change or triple point. Fixed point of a function Formally, is a fixed point of a function if belongs to both the domain and the codomain of , and . For example, if is defined on the real numbers by f(x) = x^2 - 3 x + 4, then 2 is a fixed point of , because . Not all functions have fixed points: for example, , has no fixed points, since is never equal to for any real number. In graphical terms, a fixed point means the point is on the line , or in other words the graph of has a point in common with that line. Fixed-point iteration In numerical analysis, ''fixed-point i ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
