Youth in Africa constituted 19% of the global youth population in 2015, numbering 226 million. The

United Nations The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization whose stated purposes are to maintain international peace and international security, security, develop friendly relations among nations, achieve international cooperation, and be ...

defines youth as people aged 15 to 24 years. By 2030, it is predicted that the number of youths in

Africa Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent, after Asia in both cases. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of Earth's total surface area ...

will have increased by 42%. Africa's population as a whole is very young, with 60% of the entire continent aged below 25, making it the youngest continent in the world, in relation to its population makeup. All of the world's top 10 youngest countries by median age are in Africa, with

Niger ) , official_languages = , languages_type = National languagesMoser, C. and Rodgers, D. (2004) 'Change and Violence in Non-Conflict Situations', Scoping Background paper for the DFID Rural-Urban Change Team, DFID, London The youths of Africa experience the

globalisation Globalization, or globalisation (Commonwealth English; see spelling differences), is the process of interaction and integration among people, companies, and governments worldwide. The term ''globalization'' first appeared in the early 20t ...

of culture in many different forms, such as through fashion and music, including American rap and hip-hop. A further significant issue for Africa's youth population is the prevention, treatment and eradication of disease, with particular reference to

HIV/AIDS Human immunodeficiency virus infection and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) is a spectrum of conditions caused by infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), a retrovirus. Following initial infection an individual ...

, which remains a major cause of morbidity and mortality amongst African youths.Faria, C. (2008) 'Privileging Prevention, Gendering Responsibility: An Analysis of the Ghanaian Campaign Against HIV/AIDS' Social and Cultural Geography, 9(1): 41–73

Employment

There is a crisis due to lack of formal skilled employment opportunities across Africa, which is exacerbated by the addition of 10–12 million youths to the labour market each year. The

demographic dividend Demographic dividend, as defined by the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), is "the economic growth potential that can result from shifts in a population’s age structure, mainly when the share of the working-age population (15 to 64) is large ...

in Africa has the potential to become a 'ticking time bomb', as claimed by Ighobor, or to provide great potential for economic development, which is explored by the United Nations Population Fund. Youth unemployment across Africa is high, at 30.6% in North Africa, the second-highest rate of a region globally, whilst in

sub-Saharan Sub-Saharan Africa is, geographically, the area and regions of the continent of Africa that lies south of the Sahara. These include West Africa, East Africa, Central Africa, and Southern Africa. Geopolitically, in addition to the African co ...

Africa, the rate is declining to 12.9% in 2016. Youth unemployment levels vary from 53.6% in Eswatini and 52.3% in South Africa, to 3.3% in Rwanda in 2016. As age within the working population increases, so do levels of employment, as youths are three times more likely to be unemployed than adults (aged 25 or over), which demonstrates an anti-youth bias across African labour markets.Anyanwu, J. C. (2013) 'Characteristics and Macroeconomic Determinants of Youth Employment in Africa' African Development Review, 25(2):107-129

Graduate Employment

Lack of graduate employment opportunities across the continent has contributed towards high levels of informal employment, underemployment and unemployment across university graduates. It is estimated that 600,000 South African graduates are unable to find suitable employment. Many African nations have worked to promote formal skilled graduate employment through schemes such as the Virtual African Higher Education Observatory, which seeks to develop employability skills amongst students, and the National Youth Service in Ghana.

Gender

Young women have higher rates of unemployment than men in all African countries, which may potentially result from gender inequalities in primary and secondary education, with only

Eswatini Eswatini ( ; ss, eSwatini ), officially the Kingdom of Eswatini and formerly named Swaziland ( ; officially renamed in 2018), is a landlocked country in Southern Africa. It is bordered by Mozambique to its northeast and South Africa to its no ...

achieving gender parity in secondary school enrolment in Africa. In the Central African Republic and Chad, less than half as many girls as boys were enrolled in secondary school in 2012. This takes the foundation for skilled formal employment away from girls, which is further exacerbated by a gender bias in the workplace; women with equivalent skills and experience are five times more likely to struggle gaining employment than men in Kenya. Further issues impacting young women's employment include: child marriage; time poverty through participation in reproductive labour; and laws and customs restricting women's actions and mobilities.

Informal Economy

The

informal economy An informal economy (informal sector or grey economy) is the part of any economy that is neither taxed nor monitored by any form of government. Although the informal sector makes up a significant portion of the economies in developing countrie ...

comprises 75% of non-agricultural employment in Africa. This is significantly higher than in other regions, and is discouraged by international corporations such as the World Bank and the International Labour Organisation, as informality is viewed as 'a reflection of underdevelopment,' which may also be 'the source of further economic retardation.' Informal employment may also be damaging on social levels, due to its lack of official regulation, limited social security and poor wages and working conditions.

Education

Every year, more young people pursue their transition to

adulthood An adult is a human or other animal that has reached full growth. In human context, the term ''adult'' has meanings associated with social and legal concepts. In contrast to a " minor", a legal adult is a person who has attained the age of major ...

through

education Education is a purposeful activity directed at achieving certain aims, such as transmitting knowledge or fostering skills and character traits. These aims may include the development of understanding, rationality, kindness, and honesty. Va ...

. This has caused higher demands for post-basic education as the bridge between the aspirations of young people and the promises of a better

future The future is the time after the past and present. Its arrival is considered inevitable due to the existence of time and the laws of physics. Due to the apparent nature of reality and the unavoidability of the future, everything that currently ...

through paid

employment Employment is a relationship between two parties regulating the provision of paid labour services. Usually based on a contract, one party, the employer, which might be a corporation, a not-for-profit organization, a co-operative, or any othe ...

. But opportunity for a

secondary education Secondary education or post-primary education covers two phases on the International Standard Classification of Education scale. Level 2 or lower secondary education (less commonly junior secondary education) is considered the second and final pha ...

is not a viable option by everyone, and along with fast-changing societies and

economies An economy is an area of the production, distribution and trade, as well as consumption of goods and services. In general, it is defined as a social domain that emphasize the practices, discourses, and material expressions associated with the p ...

, there is also a sector of urban and rural southern African youth, who feel disengaged from the education system. Disengagement from

school A school is an educational institution designed to provide learning spaces and learning environments for the teaching of students under the direction of teachers. Most countries have systems of formal education, which is sometimes compuls ...

creates barriers for the youth. School is related not only to the future of a young person, as a resource for upward mobility and a higher quality of life, but also to the person’s current

well-being Well-being, or wellbeing, also known as wellness, prudential value or quality of life, refers to what is intrinsically valuable relative ''to'' someone. So the well-being of a person is what is ultimately good ''for'' this person, what is in th ...

. When disengaged from the educational system, young people become disconnected and isolated, they feel worthless and incapable of contributing in significant ways in the different domains of their lives such as the

family Family (from la, familia) is a Social group, group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or Affinity (law), affinity (by marriage or other relationship). The purpose of the family is to maintain the well-being of its ...

community A community is a social unit (a group of living things) with commonality such as place, norms, religion, values, customs, or identity. Communities may share a sense of place situated in a given geographical area (e.g. a country, village, tow ...

or at the national level. Barriers that exist at the

primary school A primary school (in Ireland, the United Kingdom, Australia, Trinidad and Tobago, Jamaica, and South Africa), junior school (in Australia), elementary school or grade school (in North America and the Philippines) is a school for primary e ...

level are magnified at the secondary level, including costs, distance to school and the demand for children and adolescents to cook, clean and care for younger children as part of their assigned domestic chores. However, these barriers are not the only elements that influence a young person’s decision to engage in post-basic education. Part of this decision involves the

s and other personal factors. Studies show that in countries such as

Lesotho Lesotho ( ), officially the Kingdom of Lesotho, is a country landlocked country, landlocked as an Enclave and exclave, enclave in South Africa. It is situated in the Maloti Mountains and contains the Thabana Ntlenyana, highest mountains in Sou ...

, where education is mandatory until the seventh grade, or

Zambia Zambia (), officially the Republic of Zambia, is a landlocked country at the crossroads of Central Africa, Central, Southern Africa, Southern and East Africa, although it is typically referred to as being in Southern Africa at its most cent ...

, where it is mandatory until the ninth grade, access to post-basic education has been a problem due to the increasing number of students graduating from primary school. In

Zimbabwe Zimbabwe (), officially the Republic of Zimbabwe, is a landlocked country located in Southeast Africa, between the Zambezi and Limpopo Rivers, bordered by South Africa to the south, Botswana to the south-west, Zambia to the north, and Mozam ...

, the enrolment rate in lower secondary school rose from 74% in 2003 to 92% in 2013, while in

Malawi Malawi (; or aláwi Tumbuka: ''Malaŵi''), officially the Republic of Malawi, is a landlocked country in Southeastern Africa that was formerly known as Nyasaland. It is bordered by Zambia to the west, Tanzania to the north and northeast ...

, lower secondary school enrolment increased from 67% in 2005 to 83% in 2015. A growing demand for secondary school is pressuring the system for better content quality and curricula, along with improved infrastructure and accessibility.

Violence

In Africa, 70% of urban residents have been victims of crime, mainly in peacetime, and youths are the most likely to commit, and be victims of, violence and violent acts. However, lack of reliable data collection methods means that little is known about the true extent of youth involvement in violence in Africa.

Crisis of Youth

Cruise-O'Brien (1996) describes African youth as 'the lost generation,' as he argues that the youth-to-adulthood transition has been blocked or stretched, in a position of 'waithood' according to Honwana (2013). Cruise-O'Brien believes this is caused by the failure of states and traditional organisations, who have reneged on their promises to the youth population about the rewards of development. Peters (2012) argues that engaging in violence is seen by many African youths as having more meritocratic opportunities than remaining in a patrimonial system that would exacerbate their marginal status, an example is Cameroon, after the introduction of Structural Adjustment Programs in 1987. However, it must be made clear that not all African youths are in a crisis, but further study is needed into how youths, who do not engage in violence make their own livelihood in a system that is viewed to have failed them.

Youth Gangs

There are many 'gangs' in existence and operation throughout the continent of Africa. One example is The

Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta The Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND) is a decentralised militant group in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. MEND's actionsincluding sabotage, theft, property destruction, guerrilla warfare, and kidnappingare part of the br ...

(MEND), who have kidnapped oil workers, attacked oil fields, blown up pipelines and fought against the Nigerian army. Although these gangs pale in comparison to gangs in America and Europe according to the scale of organized gangs in a Fortune magazine article, https://fortune.com/2014/09/14/biggest-organized-crime-groups-in-the-world/ they are still gangs that are forming due to lack of opportunities. They mostly prey on people living in low income areas because higher economic status areas usually have very good security. The United Kingdom according to the latest US travel advisory, is a Level 2, https://travel.state.gov/content/travel/en/traveladvisories/traveladvisories.html similar to countries like Kenya but not Nigeria, which is at Level 3. In most African countries, it is best to avoid extremely congested urban areas near slums or poor infrastructure, where the gangs thrive to be able to make a quick getaway. Martha Carey (2008) describes how young people in Sierra Leone thwarted in their aspirations by age-based secret societies, corrupt politicians and political systems, and an economy in decline, carried out public amputations to send messages to those in power. Some gangs in the Niger Delta in Nigeria are financed by politicians to act in their favour during election times, or by protecting their private property. Other gangs, such as the 'Kuluna', a system of organised criminal gangs in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo, have formed and taken opportunities themselves. Moser and McIlwaine (2014) note that: often, the youth population engage in violent gangs for economic reasons, but also to create a sense of identity for themselves in a wider context of social and economic exclusion.

Solutions

Difficulties in defining the stage at which to intervene has meant that there are few multilateral frameworks to intervene in youth violence in Africa, for example by the United Nations. The United Nations Development Programme, in 2006, suggested that a better informed, holistic framework is urgently needed, investing in young people, their societies and their ability to participate in decision making. There is a need for entrepreneurship and innovation at a higher level, both by the youth and the governments. The Young Africans, who are now exposed to global trends through media are potential, and if the potential is well utilized, the young people can be great contributors to development.

Culture

The globalisation of culture is perhaps nowhere more visible than in the changing nature of the relationship between the world's youth and their sense of identity. Africans are cultivating materialistic and individualistic habits and values previously associated with Western cultures. The swirl of new and modern trends, fashions, ideas and technologies that hit cities first have a strong attraction. Rural youth, not wanting to be viewed as backward or bushy, adopt incoming trends as well.

Hip-Hop Culture

Liberalisation Liberalization or liberalisation (British English) is a broad term that refers to the practice of making laws, systems, or opinions less severe, usually in the sense of eliminating certain government regulations or restrictions. The term is used m ...

was central in providing Africa's youth with exposure and access to

rap music Rapping (also rhyming, spitting, emceeing or MCing) is a musical form of vocal delivery that incorporates "rhyme, rhythmic speech, and street vernacular". It is performed or chanted, usually over a backing beat or musical accompaniment. The ...

, as it allowed easier access to foreign goods and services, including hip-hop clothing, music, and magazines.Perullo, A. (2005) 'Hooligans and Heroes: Youth Identity and Hip-Hop in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania', Africa Today, 51(4):75–101 In the mid-1980s, clubs in Accra were playing American rappers such as LL Cool J, Heavy D, Public Enemy, and later in the 1990s, Tupac Shakur and the Notorious B.I.G.

Tanzania

The CCM (Chama Cha Mapinduzi) government introduced political and economic liberalisation in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Tanzanian youth and young adults incorporated various musical and textual (as well as visual) elements from local and foreign reggae and hip-hop when shaping their contemporary identities. These musically mediated identifications tie Tanzanian youths to young generations in Jamaica and the USA. Weiss (2009) identifies barbershops in urban Tanzania as sites of the struggle to earn a living amid economic crisis. With names like Brooklyn Barber House and Boyz II Men, these workplaces are also nodes in an explosion of popular culture that appropriates images drawn from the global circulation of hip-hop music, fashion, and celebrity. In urban Tanzania, rap has become a central means for youths to teach others about joblessness, corruption, class differences, HIV/AIDS, and other issues. Located at the heart of both analytical apparatuses and political action, young people have become a preoccupation of politicians. Suriano (2007) highlights the fact that during the last CCM general electoral campaign in 2005, Jakaya Kikwete (Tanzanian President 2005–2015) was accompanied by young Hip-Hop and Bongo Flava artists in order to entertain, attract and deliver the new party slogan to the crowd more effectively.Suriano, M. (2007) Mimi Ni Msanii, Lioo Cha Jamii: Urban Youth Culture in Tanzania as Seen Through Bongo Flava and Hip-Hop', Swahili Forum, 14:207–223)

Youth Languages

Youths in several urban centres on the African continent are continuously creating their own languages in order to set themselves apart from the older generations. Young artists often contribute towards the spread of new terms, such as '

Sheng slang Sheng is a Swahili and English-based cant, perhaps a mixed language or creole, originating among the urban youth of Nairobi, Kenya, and influenced by many of the languages spoken there. While primarily a language of urban youths, it has spread ...

' words (a combination of Swahili and English).

Health

HIV/AIDS is a major cause of death amongst youth in Africa, particularly young women, who are more vulnerable to contracting HIV than young men in the same location and circumstances. Other diseases, such as tuberculosis (TB) and malaria, are also in the top five causes of mortality among the youth population.

HIV/AIDS

The prevalence of HIV/AIDS amongst the youth population in Sub-Saharan Africa varies greatly both within and between countries. In 2009, 20 countries in Sub-Saharan Africa accounted for an estimated 69% of the world's new HIV infections among young people, with an estimated 4.3% of young women and 1.5% of young men in the region living with HIV. In Eastern and Southern Africa, 11.9% of the population living with HIV are aged 15–24, with 710,000 South African youths, the largest youth population of any African country, living with HIV/AIDS.

Prevention Programmes

It is suggested that health behaviour interventions carried out in everyday places, such as schools and 'camps', could result in increased effectiveness in reducing the number of young people affected by HIV, rather than if schemes were carried out in specialist health facilities.Yamanis, T.J., Maman, S., Mbwambo, J.K., Earp, J.A.E. and Kajula, L.J. (2010) 'Social Venues that Protect Against and Promote HIV Risk for Young Men in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania', Social Sciences and Medicine, 71(9):1601–1609 In Tanzania, young people make up 60% of the country's new HIV infectious, and considering that 38% of youths are neither employed or in education, 'camps' are where young people engage in HIV 'risk behaviour' to the greatest extent. Yamanis et al. (2010) applied the therapeutic landscapes framework to examine how 'camps' influenced HIV risk behaviour among young men in Tanzanian urban areas. They found that these 'camps' can be simultaneously both health and risk producing. Many of these prevention programmes are targeted at the youth population since they are perceived to be the 'Window of Hope' in many African countries, however many are also targeted unfairly at women. Faria (2008) suggests that amongst campaigns that promote abstinence as a way of preventing HIV, young women are directed to take responsibility, whilst attention is taken away from the sexual activity, and associated risky behaviour, of young men.

Mental Health

The World Health Organisation (WHO) has attempted to raise the profile of youth mental health through its Mental Health Gap Action Plan. There was a push to include mental health in the Millennium Development Goals. In most Sub-Saharan African countries, there is no clear pathway to access treatment, and mental illness retains an extent of stigmatisation, as is evidenced through the limited and substandard mental health facilities throughout the region. Further, youth in some rural parts of Africa experience high rates of emotional distress and suicidality.

Sources

References

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