Yellow Turban Rebellion

The Yellow Turban Rebellion, alternatively translated as the Yellow Scarves Rebellion, was a peasant revolt in China against the Eastern Han dynasty. The uprising broke out in 184 CE during the reign of Emperor Ling. Although the main rebellion was suppressed by 185 CE, it took 21 years for full suppression of resistant areas and emerging rebellions by 205 CE. The rebellion, which got its name from the color of the rebel headwear, marked an important point in the history of Taoism due to the rebels' association with secret Taoist societies. The revolt was also used as the opening event in the 14th-century historical novel ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms''.

Causes

The Han Dynasty's central government was weakened by court eunuchs abusing their power over the emperor to enrich themselves. Twelve of the most powerful eunuchs were referred to as the Ten Attendants with Emperor Ling once claiming that "Regular Attendant Zhang Rang is my father and Regular Attendant Zhao Zhong is my mother". The government corruption was perceived as causing plagues, natural disasters, and poor agricultural yields, reflecting that the emperor had lost his Mandate of Heaven.

As flooding along the Yellow River forced farmers and military settlers south, the labor surplus incentivized exploitation. Disease outbreaks were reported in 171, 173, 179, 182, and 185 CE, with the potential cause theorized as the Antonine Plague of 165 to 180CE of smallpox or measles spread along the Silk Road.

Through claims of providing curative water and bamboo playing, the Taoist leader Zhang Jue developed his initial following to send his disciples throughout northern China in preparation for a revolt. Their rapid rise was relatively unnoticed until they become too powerful to challenge. Zhang Jue intended to launch an uprising throughout the Han Empire, but the plan was betrayed before he was ready. Rebel sympathizers in Luoyang were arrested and executed, forcing a premature beginning in the second month of 184. Despite the inevitable lack of co-ordination and overall preparation, tens of thousands of men rose in rebellion. Government offices were plundered and destroyed and the imperial armies were immediately forced on the defensive.

Rebels

Founders

The rebellion was led by Zhang Jue (also referred to as Zhang Jiao, known to his followers as the "General of Heaven") and his two younger brothers Zhang Bao () and Zhang Liang (), who were born in Julu Commandery. The brothers had founded a Taoist religious sect in present-day Shandong, praised as healers who offered free care to impoverished patients. Recognizing how the local government abused the peasant class through harsh labor and heavy taxes, they plotted rebellion.

Taoist sect

The rebels were the first followers of the Way of Supreme Peace () and venerated the deity Huang–Lao, who according to Zhang Jue, had given him a sacred book called the ''Crucial Keys to the Way of Peace'' () based on the '' Taipingjing''. Zhang Jue, who was said to be a sorcerer, called himself the "Great Teacher" (). When the rebellion was proclaimed, Zhang Jue created a 16-word slogan spread through the brothers' medical work:(初，鉅鹿張角自稱「大賢良師」，奉事黃老道，畜養弟子，跪拜首過，符水咒說以療病，病者頗愈，百姓信向之。角因遣弟子八人使於四方，以善道教化天下，轉相誑惑。十餘年閒，眾徒數十萬，連結郡國，自青、徐、幽、冀、荊、楊、兗、豫八州之人，莫不畢應。遂置三十六方。方猶將軍號也。大方萬餘人，小方六七千，各立渠帥。訛言「蒼天已死，黃天當立，歲在甲子，天下大吉」。以白土書京城寺門及州郡官府，皆作「甲子」字。) ''Houhanshu'' vol. 71.

Religious practices

Zhang Jue claimed to cure patients by having them confess sins for Taoist faith healing. The Zhang brothers believed in an impending apocalyptic change in the '' jiazi'' year, the beginning of the new sexagenary cycle, involving yellow skies marking new governance, which inspired the color of their headwear.''Generals of the South'', Rafe de Crespigny
(pp. 85–92) Through the sect's communal activities like trances, fasting, musical performances, chanting, incense burning, and sermons, followers united across ethnic and gender lines. Several Xiongnu leaders, such as Yufuluo, lent their support, potentially inspiring Zhang Jue to adopt their shamanistic beliefs.

Despite few surviving records, the early Path of Supreme Peace was likely similar to the Way of the Celestial Masters, considering that Zhang Jue claimed to be a descendant of Zhang Daoling. Much of the '' Taipingjing's'' surviving 52 chapters, found in the '' Daozang'', have a direct relationship to the Way of the Celestial Masters with discrepancies potentially suppressed by later Taoists.

Zhang Jue's plans for rebellion

Before the rebellion started, Zhang Jue had sent Ma Yuanyi () to recruit followers from Jing and Yang provinces and gather them in Ye. Since Ma Yuanyi frequently traveled to Luoyang, the Han imperial capital, he was able to persuade Feng Xu () and Xu Feng (), members of the imperial court's eunuch faction, to secretly collaborate with Zhang Jue. They set 3 April 184 as the date for the rebellion, but before the plans was set in motion, the Yellow Turbans were betrayed. One of the founders of "The Way of Peace" movement, Tang Zhou () had been excluded from later planning, so he reported Ma Yuanyi to the authorities. Ma Yuanyi was arrested and executed by dismemberment in Luoyang.(中平元年，大方馬元義等先收荊、楊數萬人，期會發於鄴。元義數往來京師，以中常侍封諝、徐奉等為內應，約以三月五日內外俱起。未及作亂，而張角弟子濟南唐周上書告之，於是車裂元義於洛陽。) ''Houhanshu'' vol. 71.

After Emperor Ling learned that Zhang Jue was plotting a revolt, he ordered Zhou Bin (), Prefect of the Palace Parks (), to conduct an investigation and capture all the conspirators. Hundreds of people were arrested and executed during this time.(靈帝以周章下三公、司隸，使鉤盾令周斌將三府掾屬，案驗宮省直衛及百姓有事角道者，誅殺千餘人，推考冀州，逐捕角等。) ''Houhanshu'' vol. 71.

Yellow Rebellion

When Zhang Jue heard that the Han government had caught wind about his plans to rebel, he quickly sent messengers to contact his allies throughout China and take action immediately. Sometime between 29 February and 29 March 184, Zhang Jue started the Yellow Turban Rebellion with roughly 360,000 followers wearing yellow headscarves or turbans.(中平元年春二月，鉅鹿人張角自稱「黃天」，其部師有三十六萬，皆著黃巾，同日反叛。安平、甘陵人各執其王以應之。) ''Houhanshu'' vol. 8. He called himself the "Lord General of Heaven" (), while his brothers Zhang Bao and Zhang Liang were called the "Lord General of Earth" () and "Lord General of People" (), respectively. The rebels attacked government offices, pillaged villages, and seized control of commanderies. Within 10 days, the rebellion had spread throughout China, alarming the Han imperial court in Luoyang.角等知事已露，晨夜馳敕諸方，一時俱起。皆著黃巾為摽幟，角稱「天公將軍」，角弟寶稱「地公將軍」，寶弟梁稱「人公將軍」，所在燔燒官府，劫略聚邑，州郡失據，長吏多逃亡。旬日之閒，天下嚮應，京師震動。) ''Houhanshu'' vol. 71.

The rebels were mostly concentrated in the Ji, Jing, You and Yu provinces. The group led by Zhang Jue and his brothers gained their support in Ji Province, located just north of the Yellow River, near Zhang Jue's home territory of Julu Commandery (around present-day Pingxiang County, Hebei) and Wei Commandery (around present-day Handan, Hebei). A second major uprising took place in Guangyang Commandery (around present-day Beijing) and Zhuo Commandery (around present-day Zhuozhou, Hebei) in You Province. The third centre of the rebellion was in Yingchuan Commandery (around present-day Xuchang, Henan) and Runan Commandery (around present-day Xinyang, Henan) in Yu Province, and Nanyang Commandery (around present-day Nanyang, Henan) in northern Jing Province.

On 1 April 184, Emperor Ling appointed his brother-in-law He Jin, the Intendant of Henan (), as General-in-Chief () and ordered him to supervise the imperial armies in suppressing the rebellion.(三月戊申，以河南尹何進為大將軍，將兵屯都亭。) ''Houhanshu'' vol. 8. Emperor Ling also appointed three generals – Lu Zhi, Huangfu Song and Zhu Jun – to lead three separate armies to deal with the rebels with a total of roughly 40,000 troops.(於是發天下精兵，博選將帥，以嵩為左中郎將，持節，與右中郎將朱雋，共發五校、三河騎士及募精勇，合四萬餘人，嵩、雋各統一軍，共討潁川黃巾。) ''Houhanshu'' vol. 71. Lu Zhi went for Zhang Jue's base in Ji Province, while Huangfu Song and Zhu Jun headed to Yingchuan Commandery.(遣北中郎將盧植討張角，左中郎將皇甫嵩、右中郎將朱雋討潁川黃巾。) ''Houhanshu'' vol. 8.

You Province: Guangyang and Zhuo commanderies

In You Province, the rebels killed Guo Xun (), the provincial Inspector, and Liu Wei (), the Administrator of Guangyang Commandery.(廣陽黃巾殺幽州刺史郭勳及太守劉衛。) ''Houhanshu'' vol. 8.

Zou Jing, a colonel, led imperial forces to eliminate the rebels in You Province. Liu Bei led a group of volunteers to assist him.(靈帝末，黃巾起，州郡各舉義兵，先主率其屬從校尉鄒靖討黃巾賊有功，除安喜尉。) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 32.

Yu Province: Runan and Yingchuan commanderies

When the rebellion first broke out in Yu Province, the Han imperial court specially selected Wang Yun to be the inspector of the province to oversee the military operations.(中平元年，黃巾賊起，特選拜豫州刺史。 ... 討擊黃巾別帥，大破之，與左中郎將皇甫嵩、右中郎將朱雋等受降數十萬。於賊中得中常侍張讓賓客書疏，與黃巾交通，允具發其姦，以狀聞。靈帝責怒讓，讓叩頭陳謝，竟不能罪之。) ''Houhanshu'' vol. 66.

Zhao Qian (), the administrator of Runan Commandery, led his troops to attack the rebels before Zhu Jun arrived, but was defeated at Shaoling (; in present-day southeastern Henan).(汝南黃巾敗太守趙謙於邵陵。) ''Houhanshu'' vol. 8. When Chen County (; present-day Huaiyang County, Henan) was under attack by the rebels, seven of Zhao Qian's subordinates, who were non-military personnel, armed themselves with swords and attempted to fight the rebels but were all killed. Later, after the rebellion was suppressed, Emperor Ling issued an edict to honor the seven as the "Seven Virtuous" ().(忠子祕，為郡門下議生。黃巾起，祕從太守趙謙擊之，軍敗，祕與功曹封觀等七人以身扞刃，皆死於陳，謙以得免。詔祕等門閭號曰「七賢」。) ''Houhanshu'' vol. 45.(謝承書曰「秘字永寧。封觀與主簿陳端、門下督范仲禮、賊曹劉偉德、主記史丁子嗣、記室史張仲然、議生袁秘等七人擢刃突陳，與戰並死」也。) Annotation from Xie Cheng's ''Houhanshu'' in (Fan Ye's) ''Houhanshu'' vol. 45.

Chen State (; around present-day Zhoukou, Henan), one of the commanderies in Yu Province, avoided the Yellow Turban Rebellion's bloodshed because the rebels feared Prince Liu Chong, famous for his unit of skilled archers.(中平中，黃巾賊起，郡縣皆棄城走，寵有彊弩數千張，出軍都亭。國人素聞王善射，不敢反叛，故陳獨得完，百姓歸之者眾十餘萬人。) ''Houhanshu'' vol. 76.

The rebels in Runan Commandery, led by Bo Cai (), initially defeated Zhu Jun in battle and drove him back. The imperial court sent a cavalry commandant, led by young officer Cao Cao (), as reinforcements for Zhu Jun.(會帝遣騎都尉曹操將兵適至，嵩、操與朱雋合兵更戰，大破之，斬首數萬級。) ''Houhanshu'' vol. 71. Sometime between 28 May and 25 June, Zhu Jun, Huangfu Song, and Cao Cao joined forces to defeat Bo Cai at Changshe (; east of present-day Changge, Henan).(雋前與賊波才戰，戰敗，嵩因進保長社。波才引大眾圍城，嵩兵少，軍人皆恐，乃召軍吏謂曰：「兵有奇變，不在眾寡。今賊依草結營，易為風火。若因夜縱燒，必大驚亂。吾出兵擊之，四面俱合，田單之功可成也。」其夕遂大風，嵩乃約敕軍士皆束苣乘城，使銳士閒出圍外，縱火大呼，城上舉燎應之，嵩因鼓而奔其陳，賊驚亂奔走。 ... ) ''Houhanshu'' vol. 71. While Bo Cai attempted to flee, Huangfu Song and Zhu Jun pursued him to Yangzhai County (陽翟縣; present-day Yuzhou, Henan) and defeated him again, causing the rebels to scatter.

Huangfu Song and Zhu Jun then defeated the rebels in Runan Commandery, led by Peng Tuo (), at Xihua County (; south of present-day Xihua County, Henan).(嵩、雋乘勝進討汝南、陳國黃巾，追波才於陽翟，擊彭脫於西華，並破之。餘賊降散，三郡悉平。) ''Houhanshu'' vol. 71. The imperial court ordered them to split up: Huangfu Song would attack the rebels at Dong Commandery (東郡; around present-day Puyang County, Henan), while Zhu Jun would attack the rebels at Nanyang Commandery.(皇甫嵩、朱雋大破汝南黃巾於西華。詔嵩討東郡，朱雋討南陽。) ''Houhanshu'' vol. 8. During this time, Wang Yun, the Inspector of Yu Province, found evidence that the rebels had been secretly maintaining contact with Zhang Rang (), the leader of the eunuch faction in Luoyang, so he reported it to Emperor Ling, who scolded Zhang Rang but did not punish him.

Between 7 November and 6 December, Bao Hong (), a colonel, led imperial forces to attack the rebels in Gebei (; northwest of present-day Xincai County, Henan) and defeated them.( ��平五年��十月， ... 徐黃巾復起，寇郡縣。 ... 遣下軍校尉鮑鴻討葛陂黃巾。) ''Houhanshu'' vol. 8.

Ji Province: Wei and Julu commanderies

In the meantime, Lu Zhi defeated Zhang Jue's rebel forces in Julu Commandery and besieged the rebel leader in Guangzong County (; southeast of present-day Guangzong County, Hebei). However, after a eunuch falsely accused Lu Zhi of treason, Emperor Ling ordered his arrest, escorted back to Luoyang as a prisoner.(盧植破黃巾，圍張角於廣宗。宦官誣奏植，抵罪。) ''Houhanshu'' vol. 8. The imperial court then sent General Dong Zhuo to take over Lu Zhi's position and attack Zhang Jue. However, Dong Zhuo failed and retreated.(遣中郎將董卓攻張角，不剋。) ''Houhanshu'' vol. 8.(時北中郎將盧植及東中郎將董卓討張角，並無功而還，乃詔嵩進兵討之。) ''Houhanshu'' vol. 71.

On 23 or 24 September, Huangfu Song and Fu Xie (), a Major under him,(後為護軍司馬，與左中郎皇甫嵩俱討賊張角。) ''Houhanshu'' vol. 58. defeated the rebels at Cangting (; north of present-day Yanggu County, Shandong), captured their leader Bu Ji (卜己), and killed over 7,000 rebels, including other minor leaders Zhang Bo () and Liang Zhongning ().(又進擊東郡黃巾卜己於倉亭，生禽卜己，斬首七千餘級。) ''Houhanshu'' vol. 71.(燮軍斬賊三帥卜巳、張伯、梁仲寧等，功高為封首。) ''Xu Han Shu'' annotation in ''Houhanshu'' vol. 58. On 25 September, the imperial court ordered him to replace Dong Zhuo and lead his troops north to Guangzong County and attack Zhang Jue.(八月，皇甫嵩與黃巾戰於倉亭，獲其帥。乙巳，詔皇甫嵩北討張角。) ''Houhanshu'' vol. 8.

Zhang Jue died of illness while under attack by Huangfu Song in Guangzong County. Between 21 November and 20 December, Huangfu Song kept attacking Zhang Liang, who had taken over command of his brother's followers at Guangzong County. Unable to defeat Zhang Liang's skilled Yellow Turbans, Huangfu Song switched to a defensive approach, tricking the rebels into lowering their guard for a devastating nighttime strike. Zhang Liang was killed in action alongside 30,000 rebels, while another 50,000 rebels drowned while attempting to flee across a river. Huangfu Song burnt over 30,000 carts containing rebel supplies and captured most of their family members. Huangfu Song then had Zhang Jue's body excavated and decapitated, sending his head to the imperial court in Luoyang.

In recognition of Huangfu Song's achievements, Emperor Ling promoted him to Left General of Chariots and Cavalry (). Between 21 December 184 and 18 January 185, Huangfu Song joined forces with Guo Dian (), the Administrator of Julu Commandery, to attack the remaining rebels led by Zhang Jue's other brother, Zhang Bao. They defeated the rebels at Xiaquyang County (; west of present-day Jinzhou, Hebei), killed Zhang Bao, and received the surrender of over 100,000 rebels.(冬十月，皇甫嵩與黃巾賊戰於廣宗，獲張角弟梁。角先死，乃戮其屍。以皇甫嵩為左車騎將軍。十一月，皇甫嵩又破黃巾于下曲陽，斬張角弟寶。) ''Houhanshu'' vol. 8.(嵩復與鉅鹿太守馮翊郭典攻角弟寶於下曲陽，又斬之。首獲十餘萬人，築京觀於城南。) ''Houhanshu'' vol. 71.

Jing Province: Nanyang Commandery

On 24 March 184, the rebels led by Zhang Mancheng () killed Chu Gong (), the Administrator of Nanyang Commandery, and occupied the commandery's capital, Wancheng (; present-day Wancheng District, Nanyang, Henan).(庚子，南陽黃巾張曼成攻殺郡守褚貢。) ''Houhanshu'' vol. 8. Chu Gong's successor, Qin Jie (), rallied local forces in Nanyang Commandery to attack Zhang Mancheng and defeated and killed him between 26 June and 25 July,(六月，南陽太守秦頡擊張曼成，斬之。) ''Houhanshu'' vol. 8.(時南陽黃巾張曼成起兵，稱「神上使」，眾數萬，殺郡守褚貢，屯宛下百餘日。) ''Houhanshu'' vol. 71. before Zhu Jun's reinforcements arrived.

After Zhang Mancheng's death, Zhao Hong () became the new rebel leader in Wancheng. During or after October 184, Qin Jie and Zhu Jun combined forces with Xu Qiu (), the Inspector of Jing Province, to attack Wancheng with an army of about 18,000. They defeated and killed Zhao Hong.(後太守秦頡擊殺曼成，賊更以趙弘為帥，眾浸盛，遂十餘萬，據宛城。雋與荊州刺史徐璆及秦頡合兵萬八千人圍弘，自六月至八月不拔。有司奏欲徵雋。 ... 雋因急擊弘，斬之。) ''Houhanshu'' vol. 71.

Following Zhao Hong's death, Han Zhong () and the remaining rebels seized control of Wancheng, continuing to resist imperial forces. Zhu Jun ordered his troops to pretend to attack from the southwest, while he secretly led 5,000 elite soldiers to infiltrate Wancheng from the northeast. Han Zhong retreated into the citadel and requested to surrender. Qin Jie, Xu Qiu and Zhang Chao (), a Major under Zhu Jun, all urged Zhu Jun to accept Han Zhong's surrender, but he refused. Zhu Jun instead pretended to lift the siege to lure Han Zhong to come out and attack. Han Zhong fell for the ruse, lost the battle, and tried to flee north while some 10,000 of his men were slaughtered by imperial forces. In desperation, Han Zhong surrendered to Zhu Jun, but Qin Jie had him executed.(賊餘帥韓忠復據宛拒雋。雋兵少不敵，乃張圍結壘，起土山以臨城內，因鳴鼓攻其西南，賊悉眾赴之。雋自將精卒五千，掩其東北，乘城而入。忠乃退保小城，惶懼乞降。司馬張超及徐璆、秦頡皆欲聽之。 ... 因急攻，連戰不剋。雋登土山望之， ... 既而解圍，忠果出戰，雋因擊，大破之。乘勝逐北數十里，斬首萬餘級。忠等遂降。而秦頡積忿忠，遂殺之。) ''Houhanshu'' vol. 71.

On 11 January 185, Zhu Jun defeated another rebel force led by Sun Xia (), who then fled towards Xi'e County (; north of present-day Nanyang, Henan). Zhu Jun pursued him there, defeated him and caused the remaining rebels to disperse.(癸巳，朱雋拔宛城，斬黃巾別帥孫夏。) ''Houhanshu'' vol. 8.(餘眾懼不自安，復以孫夏為帥，還屯宛中。雋急攻之。夏走，追至西鄂精山，又破之。復斬萬餘級，賊遂解散。) ''Houhanshu'' vol. 71.

Xu and Yang provinces

In Xu Province, the provincial Inspector Tao Qian, with the aid of Zang Ba, managed to defeat the rebels to restore regional peace.(會徐州黃巾起，以謙為徐州刺史，擊黃巾，大破走之，境內晏然。) ''Houhanshu'' vol. 73.(黃巾起，霸從陶謙擊破之，拜騎都尉。) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 18.

Sun Jian, then a minor official serving in Xiapi County (; south of present-day Pizhou, Jiangsu) in Xu Province, came to join Zhu Jun's army as a Major. He brought along several young men from Xiapi County and other soldiers recruited from the Huai River region.(中平元年，黃巾賊帥張角起於魏郡，託有神靈，遣八使以善道教化天下，而潛相連結，自稱黃天泰平。三月甲子，三十六萬一旦俱發，天下響應，燔燒郡縣，殺害長吏。漢遣車騎將軍皇甫嵩、中郎將朱儁將兵討擊之。儁表請堅為佐軍司馬，鄉里少年隨在下邳者皆願從。堅又募諸商旅及淮、泗精兵，合千許人，與儁并力奮擊，所向無前。汝、潁賊困迫，走保宛城。堅身當一面，登城先入，衆乃蟻附，遂大破之。儁具以狀聞上，拜堅別部司馬。) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 46.

In Yang Province, the rebels attacked Shu County (; in present-day central Anhui), a county in Lujiang Commandery (; around present-day Lu'an, Anhui), and set fire to buildings. Yang Xu (), the Administrator of Lujiang Commandery, successfully rallied thousands of able-bodied men aged 19 and above for countering the attack and firefighting.(... 四遷為廬江太守。後揚州黃巾賊攻舒，焚燒城郭，續發縣中男子二十以上，皆持兵勒陳，其小弱者，悉使負水灌火，會集數萬人，并埶力戰，大破之，郡界平。) ''Houhanshu'' vol. 31.

End of the rebellion

By the beginning of 185, the rebellion had mostly been suppressed following Zhu Jun's recapture of Wancheng in Nanyang Commandery and Huangfu Song's victories over the Zhang brothers in Ji Province. The remaining, scattered rebels were pursued by government forces in smaller military campaigns, and by mid-February 185, Emperor Ling issued a celebratory proclamation by changing his era name from Guanghe () to Zhongping (; "pacification achieved").

Resurgent Yellow Turban activities after early 185

Although the main Yellow Turban Rebellion ended by February 185, smaller rebellions by Yellow Turban remnants continued over the following two decades.

White Wave Bandits

Between 16 March and 13 April 188, Guo Tai () led some 100,000 Yellow Turban remnants to start a rebellion in Xihe Commandery (around present-day Fenyang, Shanxi). As they originated from Baibo Valley (白波谷; "White Wave Valley") in Xihe Commandery, they later became known as the "White Wave Bandits" (白波賊). They allied with the Xiongnu leader Yufuluo and attacked Taiyuan Commandery (around present-day Taiyuan, Shanxi) and Hedong Commandery (around present-day Yuncheng, Shanxi).( ��平五年二月， ...��巾餘賊郭太等起於西河白波谷，寇太原、河東。) ''Houhanshu'' vol. 8. Between 27 October and 25 November 189, when the bandits attacked Hedong Commandery, the warlord Dong Zhuo's attempt at sending his son-in-law Niu Fu to lead attacking troops failed.

Around mid-195, Emperor Xian fled from the imperial capital Chang'an, where he had been held hostage by Dong Zhuo's followers, led by Li Jue and Guo Si, since Dong Zhuo's death in 192. He returned to the ruins of the old imperial capital Luoyang, which Dong Zhuo burnt down in 191 while forcefully relocating its residents to Chang'an. Dong Cheng (a former subordinate of Niu Fu) and Yang Feng (a former White Wave bandit)(傕將楊奉本白波賊帥， ...) ''Houhanshu'' vol. 72. protected Emperor Xian in Luoyang when Li Jue and Guo Si tried to pursue and bring the emperor back to Chang'an. Dong Cheng and Yang Feng summoned the White Wave Bandits, led by Li Le (), Han Xian, Hu Cai () and others, to come to Emperor Xian's aid. Xiongnu forces led by Qubei (去卑) also responded to the call and came to help Emperor Xian resist Li Jue and Guo Si's forces.(李傕、郭汜既悔令天子東，乃來救段煨，因欲劫帝而西， ... 而張濟與楊奉、董承不相平，乃反合傕、汜，共追乘輿，大戰於弘農東澗。承、奉軍敗，百官士卒死者不可勝數，皆棄其婦女輜重，御物符策典籍，略無所遺。 ... 天子遂露次曹陽。承、奉乃譎傕等與連和，而密遣閒使至河東，招故白波帥李樂、韓暹、胡才及南匈奴右賢王去卑，並率其眾數千騎來，與承、奉共擊傕等，大破之，斬首數千級，乘輿乃得進。董承、李樂擁衛左右，胡才、楊奉、韓暹、去卑為後距。傕等復來戰，奉等大敗，死者甚於東澗。) ''Houhanshu'' vol. 72. Between 195 and 196, the warlord Cao Cao led his forces into Luoyang and escorted Emperor Xian to his own base in Xu (許; present-day Xuchang, Henan) and established the new imperial capital there.

Yi Province: Ma Xiang and Zhao Zhi

In 188, Ma Xiang () and Zhao Zhi () led Yellow Turban remnants to start a rebellion in Yi Province (covering present-day Sichuan and Chongqing). They killed Li Sheng (; Prefect of Mianzhu County ), Zhao Bu (; Administrator of Ba Commandery ) and Xi Jian (; Inspector of Yi Province). Ma Xiang declared himself emperor before this sect of the rebellion was suppressed by local forces led by Jia Long (), a former subordinate of Xi Jian.( ��平五年六月， ...��州黃巾馬相攻殺刺史郗儉，自稱天子，又寇巴郡，殺郡守趙部，益州從事賈龍擊相，斬之。) ''Houhanshu'' vol. 8.(是時梁州逆賊馬相、趙祗等於緜竹縣自號黃巾，合聚疲役之民，一二日中得數千人，先殺緜竹令李升，吏民翕集合萬餘人，便前破雒縣，攻益州殺儉，又到蜀郡、犍為，旬月之間，破壞三郡。相自稱天子，衆以萬數。州從事賈龍素領兵數百人在犍為東界，攝斂吏民，得千餘人，攻相等，數日破走，州界清靜。) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 31.

Qing Province: Zhang Rao, Guan Hai, Xu He and Sima Ju

Around 189, Zhang Rao () led some 200,000 Yellow Turban remnants to ravage Qing Province. He defeated imperial forces under Kong Rong, the Han-appointed Chancellor of Beihai State (around present-day Weifang, Shandong) in Qing Province.(時黃巾寇數州，而北海最為賊衝，卓乃諷三府同舉融為北海相。融到郡，收合士民，起兵講武，馳檄飛翰，引謀州郡。賊張饒等群輩二十萬眾從冀州還，融逆擊，為饒所敗，乃收散兵保朱虛縣。) ''Houhanshu'' vol. 70. Later, Kong Rong was besieged in Duchang County (; present-day Changyi, Shandong) by thousands of Yellow Turban rebels led by Guan Hai (). Taishi Ci, then a military officer under Kong Rong, managed to break out of the siege and seek help from Liu Bei, who was then the Chancellor of the nearby Pingyuan State. Liu Bei brought along 3,000 troops to attack Guan Hai and succeeded in saving Kong Rong.(時黃巾復來侵暴，融乃出屯都昌，為賊管亥所圍。融逼急，乃遣東萊太史慈求救於平原相劉備。備驚曰：「孔北海乃復知天下有劉備邪？」即遣兵三千救之，賊乃散走。) ''Houhanshu'' vol. 70.

In the 200s, Xu He () and Sima Ju () led Yellow Turban remnants from Jinan Commandery (around present-day Zhangqiu, Shandong) and Le'an Commandery (around present-day Zibo, Shandong) respectively to ravage Qing Province. They were defeated and killed by Xiahou Yuan, Zang Ba and Lü Qian some time between 206 and 209.(濟南、樂安黃巾徐和、司馬俱等攻城，殺長吏，淵將泰山、齊、平原郡兵擊，大破之，斬和，平諸縣，收其糧穀以給軍士。) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 9.(又與于禁討昌豨，與夏侯淵討黃巾餘賊徐和等，有功，遷徐州刺史。 ... 濟南黃巾徐和等，所在劫長吏，攻城邑。虔引兵與夏侯淵會擊之，前後數十戰，斬首獲生數千人。) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 18.

Yan Province: Cao Cao's Qingzhou Army

Around May 192, hundreds of thousands of Yellow Turban remnants from Qing Province swarmed into Yan Province and killed Zheng Sui (), the Chancellor of Rencheng State (; around present-day Zoucheng, Shandong), before moving into Dongping Commandery (; around present-day Dongping County, Shandong). Liu Dai, the Inspector of Yan Province, wanted to lead his troops to attack the rebels but the general Bao Xin advised him against it. Liu Dai ignored this advice, dying in his attack against the rebels. Bao Xin and another official, Wan Qian (), went to Dong Commandery (; around present-day Puyang, Henan) to invite Cao Cao to be the new Governor of Yan Province. Bao Xin then led government forces to attack the rebels at the east of Shouzhang County (; south of present-day Dongping County, Shandong) but was killed in action. Later, despite having fewer troops, Cao Cao managed to defeat the rebels in Jibei State. The rebels, numbering over 300,000, surrendered to Cao Cao along with their families. Cao Cao then recruited their best warriors and organised them to form an elite military unit, the Qingzhou Army (; also translated as "Qingzhou Corps").(追黃巾至濟北。乞降。冬，受降卒三十餘萬，男女百餘萬口，收其精銳者，號為青州兵。) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 1.

Runan and Yingchuan commanderies: He Yi, Liu Pi, Gong Du and others

In Runan Commandery and Yingchuan Commandery, thousands of Yellow Turban remnants remained active under the leadership of He Yi (), Liu Pi (), Huang Shao (), and He Man (). They were initially allied with the warlords Yuan Shu and Sun Jian, but became an independent force in the 190s. Between 17 March and 15 April 196, the warlord Cao Cao led his forces to attack them and killed Liu Pi, Huang Shao, and He Man. He Yi led the remaining forces in surrendering to Cao Cao.(汝南、潁川黃巾何儀、劉辟、黃邵、何曼等，衆各數萬，初應袁術，又附孫堅。 ��安元年��月，太祖進軍討破之，斬辟、邵等，儀及其衆皆降。) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 1.

Other Yellow Turban forces in Runan Commandery were led by Wu Ba () and Gong Du (). Wu Ba was defeated and captured by the general Li Tong.又生禽黃巾大帥吳霸而降其屬。) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 18. Gong Du posed a threat to Cao Cao when he allied with Cao Cao's rival, Liu Bei, and seized control of Runan Commandery in 201. Cao Cao first sent Cai Yang () to eliminate them, but after Cai Yang was killed, he personally led his troops to attack and defeat them. Liu Bei fled south to join Liu Biao, while Gong Du and the remaining rebels dispersed.( ��安六年��月，公還許。紹之未破也，使劉備略汝南，汝南賊共都等應之。遣蔡揚擊都，不利，為都所破。公南征備。備聞公自行，走奔劉表，都等皆散。) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 1.

Yang and Jiao provinces

Another Yellow Turban remnant force was active in Kuaiji Commandery (around present-day Shaoxing, Zhejiang) until Liu Zan killed its leader Wu Huan ().(吳書曰：留贊字正明，會稽長山人。少為郡吏，與黃巾賊帥吳桓戰，手斬得桓。贊一足被創，遂屈不伸。) ''Wu Shu'' annotation in ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 64.

In the 200s, Chen Bai () and Wan Cheng () started a rebellion in Jiuzhen Commandery (; present-day Thanh Hóa Province, Vietnam). In 202, they were defeated and captured by Zhu Zhi, the commandery's administrator.(建安七年，權表治為九真太守，行扶義將軍，割婁、由拳、無錫、毗陵為奉邑，置長吏。征討夷越，佐定東南，禽截黃巾餘類陳敗、萬秉等。) ''Sanguozhi'' vol. 56.

Aftermath and impact

The Han armies were victorious, despite the destruction of major government buidings, deaths of high-ranking officials, and fragmentation of the dynasty's territory. While the exact number of casualties is unknown due to poor recordkeeping, a significant portion of the rebels were by direct fighting and the ensuing economic instability. Heavily weakened, the Han Dynasty was unable to fully govern, distributing its powers to military commanders and local leaders until its complete collapse by 220 CE.

After Emperor Ling died in 189, a power struggle between his brother-in-law He Jin and the eunuchs culminated in He Jin's assassination on 22 September 189. He Jin's chief ally, Yuan Shao, retaliated by setting the palace on fire and slaughtering the eunuchs. The warlord Dong Zhuo gained control over the underage heir, Liu Bian, to legitimize his occupation and ransacking of the capital. Dong Zhuo was murdered for his cruely in 192, allowing the warlord Cao Cao to seize power.

Involved parties

;Yellow Turban rebels

* Zhang Jue, overall leader of the rebellion, stationed in Wei and Julu commanderies
** Zhang Bao (張寶), Zhang Jue's younger brother
** Zhang Liang (張梁), Zhang Jue's younger brother
* Bu Ji (卜己), leader of the rebels at Cangting
** Zhang Bo (張伯)
** Liang Zhongning (梁仲寧)
* Zhang Mancheng (張曼成), leader of the rebels in Nanyang Commandery
** Zhao Hong (趙弘)
** Han Zhong (韓忠)
* Sun Xia (孫夏)
* Bo Cai (波才), leader of the rebels in Runan and Yingchuan commanderies
** Peng Tuo (彭脫)
* Ma Yuanyi (馬元義)
* Tang Zhou (唐周)

;Han imperial forces

* Emperor Ling
** He Jin, General-in-Chief (大將軍)
** Lu Zhi, North General of the Household (北中郎將)
** Huangfu Song, Left General of the Household (左中郎將)
*** Fu Xie (傅燮), Major (司馬)
** Zhu Jun, Right General of the Household (右中郎將)
*** Zhang Chao (張超), Major (司馬)
*** Sun Jian, Major (司馬)
** Dong Zhuo, General of the Household (中郎將)
** Cao Cao, Cavalry Commandant (騎都尉)
** Bao Hong (鮑鴻), Colonel (校尉)
* Guo Dian (郭典), Administrator of Julu Commandery
* Xu Qiu (徐璆), Inspector of Jing Province
** Chu Gong (褚貢), Administrator of Nanyang Commandery
** Qin Jie (秦頡), Administrator of Nanyang Commandery
* Tao Qian, Inspector of Xu Province
** Zang Ba, Cavalry Commandant (騎都尉).
* Yang Xu (羊續), Administrator of Lujiang Commandery
* Guo Xun (郭勳), Inspector of You Province
** Liu Wei (劉衛), Administrator of Guangyang Commandery
* Zou Jing, Colonel (校尉)
** Liu Bei
* Wang Yun, Inspector of Yu Province
** Zhao Qian (趙謙), Administrator of Runan Commandery (汝南郡)
*** Yuan Mi (袁祕), ''yisheng'' (議生; scholar)
*** Feng Guan (封觀), Officer of Merit (功曹)
*** Chen Duan (陳端), Registrar (主簿)
*** Fan Zhongli (范仲禮), a ''menxiadu'' (門下督; patrol officer)
*** Liu Weide (劉偉德), ''zeicao'' (賊曹; law enforcement officer)
*** Ding Zisi (丁子嗣), ''zhujishi'' (主記史; historian)
*** Zhang Zhongran (張仲然), a ''jishishi'' (記室史; scribe/note-taker)
** Liu Chong (劉寵), Prince of Chen

Resurgent Yellow Turban rebels

* Ma Xiang (馬相), started a rebellion in Yi Province in 188
** Zhao Zhi (趙祗)
* Zhang Rao (張饒), attacked and defeated Kong Rong in Qing Province around 189
* Guan Hai (管亥), attacked and besieged Kong Rong in Duchang County around 189 or 190, but was defeated by Liu Bei
* Wu Huan (吳桓), active in Kuaiji Commandery
* He Yi (何儀), led rebels in the 190s in Runan Commandery
** Liu Pi (劉辟)
** Huang Shao (黃邵)
** He Man (何曼)
* Gong Du (共都/龔都), active in Runan Commandery, allied with Liu Bei in 201
* Wu Ba (吳霸), active in Runan Commandery
* Xu He (徐和), led rebels in the 200s in Jinan Commandery
* Sima Ju (司馬俱), led rebels in the 200s in Le'an Commandery
* Chen Bai (陳敗), led rebels in the 200s in Jiuzhen Commandery
** Wan Cheng (萬秉)
* White Wave Bandits
** Guo Tai (郭太), started a rebellion in 188 in Xihe Commandery. This group of rebels became the White Wave Bandits
** Yang Feng, became a subordinate of Li Jue. He protected Emperor Xian from Li Jue and Guo Si in 195
** Li Le (李樂), along with Han Xian, Hu Cai and others, came to Emperor Xian's defence in Luoyang in 195
** Han Xian
** Hu Cai (胡才)

In ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms''

The rebellion is portrayed in the opening chapters of the 14th-century historical novel ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'', which portrays the Zhang brothers as sorcerers, having been provided the '' Taiping Jing'' from the " old immortal spirit from the southern lands" (sometimes identified as Zhuangzi).

Many fictional Yellow Turban figures were created for the novel, including:
* Du Yuan, killed by Liao Hua for kidnapping Liu Bei's wives
* Zhou Cang, Guan Yu's rebel-turned-weapon bearer
* Gao Sheng, a subordinate of Zhang Bao
* Cheng Yuanzhi, defeated by Liu Bei's forces in their first engagement
* Deng Mao, Cheng Yuanzhi's champion
* Bian Xi, an eventual servant of Cao Cao who tried and failed to kill Guan Yu

Though not a fictional character, Liao Hua was presented in the novel as having been a Yellow Turban rebel in his earlier days, which is historically unlikely, given his date of death and predicted lifespan.

In popular culture

The rebellion appears as an early stage in each iteration of Koei's ''Dynasty Warriors'' video game franchise, remaining largely unchanged throughout the series. He Yi, Gong Du, and Huang Shao lead playable factions in the Yellow Turban DLC of the turn-based strategy video game '' Total War: Three Kingdoms'', while the Mandate of Heaven DLC features Zhang Jue, Zhang Bao, and Zhang Liang.

Notes

References

* Chen, Shou (third century). ''Records of the Three Kingdoms'' (''Sanguozhi'').
* Fan, Ye (fifth century). '' Book of the Later Han'' (''Houhanshu'').
* Luo, Guanzhong (14th century). ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'' (''Sanguo Yanyi'').
* Sima, Guang (1084). ''Zizhi Tongjian''.

{{Authority control

180s conflicts
190s conflicts
200s conflicts
2nd-century rebellions
3rd-century rebellions
Rebellions during the end of the Han dynasty
Peasant revolts
History of Taoism
Apocalypticism
Romance of the Three Kingdoms