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The term ''Yankee'' and its contracted form ''Yank'' have several interrelated meanings, all referring to people from the United States. Its various senses depend on the context, and may refer to New Englanders, residents of the
Northern United States The Northern United States, commonly referred to as the American North, the Northern States, or simply the North, is a geographical or historical region of the United States. History Early history Before the 19th century westward expansion, the "N ...
, or Americans in general. According to the '' Oxford English Dictionary'', it is "a nickname for a native or inhabitant of New England, or, more widely, of the northern States generally". Outside the United States, ''Yank'' is used informally to refer to an
American American(s) may refer to: * American, something of, from, or related to the United States of America, commonly known as the "United States" or "America" ** Americans, citizens and nationals of the United States of America ** American ancestry, pe ...
person or thing. It has been especially popular in the United Kingdom, Ireland, Canada, South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand where it may be used variously with uncomplimentary overtones or cordially. In the Southern United States, ''Yankee'' is a derisive term which refers to all Northerners, and during the American Civil War was applied by Confederates to soldiers of the Union army in general. Elsewhere in the United States, it largely refers to people from the
Northeastern states The Northeastern United States, also referred to as the Northeast, the East Coast, or the American Northeast, is a geographic region of the United States. It is located on the Atlantic coast of North America, with Canada to its north, the Southe ...
, but especially those with New England cultural ties, such as descendants of colonial New England settlers, wherever they live. Its sense is sometimes more cultural than geographical, emphasizing the Calvinist Puritan Christian beliefs and traditions of the
Congregationalists Congregational churches (also Congregationalist churches or Congregationalism) are Protestant churches in the Calvinist tradition practising congregationalist church governance, in which each congregation independently and autonomously runs its ...
who brought their culture when they settled outside New England. The speech dialect of Eastern New England English is called "Yankee" or "Yankee dialect".


Origin and history of the word


Early usage

British General James Wolfe made the earliest recorded use of the word "Yankee" in 1758 when he referred to the New England soldiers under his command. "I can afford you two companies of Yankees, and the more, because they are better for ranging and scouting than either work or vigilance".Mathews (1951) p 1896 Later British use of the word was in a derogatory manner, as seen in a cartoon published in 1775 ridiculing "Yankee" (American) soldiers. New Englanders themselves employed the word in a neutral sense; the " Pennamite–Yankee War", for example, was a series of clashes in 1769 over land titles in Pennsylvania between settlers from
Connecticut Colony The ''Connecticut Colony'' or ''Colony of Connecticut'', originally known as the Connecticut River Colony or simply the River Colony, was an English colony in New England which later became Connecticut. It was organized on March 3, 1636 as a settl ...
and "Pennamite" settlers from Pennsylvania. The meaning of ''Yankee'' has varied over time. In the 18th century, it referred to residents of New England descended from the original English settlers of the region.
Mark Twain Samuel Langhorne Clemens (November 30, 1835 – April 21, 1910), known by his pen name Mark Twain, was an American writer, humorist, entrepreneur, publisher, and lecturer. He was praised as the "greatest humorist the United States has p ...
used the word in this sense the following century in his 1889 novel '' A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court''. As early as the 1770s, British people applied the term to any person from the United States. In the 19th century, Americans in the southern United States employed the word in reference to Americans from the northern United States, though not to recent immigrants from Europe. Thus, a visitor to
Richmond, Virginia (Thus do we reach the stars) , image_map = , mapsize = 250 px , map_caption = Location within Virginia , pushpin_map = Virginia#USA , pushpin_label = Richmond , pushpin_m ...
commented in 1818, "The enterprising people are mostly strangers; Scots, Irish, and especially New England men, or Yankees, as they are called". Historically, it has also been used to distinguish American-born Protestants from later immigrants, such as Catholics of Irish descent.


Rejected etymologies

Many etymologies have been suggested for the word ''Yankee'', but modern linguists generally reject theories that suggest that it originated in any indigenous languages. This includes a theory put forth by a British officer in 1789, who said that it was derived from the Cherokee word ''eankke'' ("coward")—despite the fact that no such word existed in the Cherokee language.''The Merriam-Webster new book of word histories'' (1991) pp. 516–517. Another theory surmised that the word was borrowed from the Wyandot pronunciation of the French ''l'anglais'', meaning "the Englishman" or "the English language", which was sounded as ''Y'an-gee''. American musicologist Oscar Sonneck debunked a romanticized false etymology in his 1909 work ''Report on "The Star-Spangled Banner", "Hail Columbia", "America", "Yankee Doodle"''. He cited a popular theory which claimed that the word came from a tribe who called themselves ''Yankoos'', said to mean "invincible". The story claimed that New Englanders had defeated this tribe after a bloody battle, and the remaining ''Yankoo'' Indians transferred their name to the victors—who were "agreeable to the Indian custom". Sonneck notes that multiple American writers since 1775 had repeated this story as if it were fact, despite what he perceived to be holes in it. It had never been the tradition of any Indian tribe to transfer their name to other peoples, according to Sonneck, nor had any settlers ever adopted an Indian name to describe themselves. Sonneck concludes by pointing out that there was never a tribe called the ''Yankoos''.


Dutch origin hypothesis

Most linguists look to
Dutch language Dutch ( ) is a West Germanic language spoken by about 25 million people as a first language and 5 million as a second language. It is the third most widely spoken Germanic language, after its close relatives German and English. ''Afrikaans'' ...
sources, noting the extensive interaction between the Dutch colonists in New Netherland (now largely New York, New Jersey, Delaware, and western Connecticut) and the English colonists in New England ( Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and eastern Connecticut). The exact application, however, is uncertain; some scholars suggest that it was a term used in derision of the Dutch colonists, others that it was derisive of the English colonists. Michael Quinion and
Patrick Hanks Patrick Hanks (born 24 March 1940) is an English lexicographer, corpus linguist, and onomastician. He has edited dictionaries of general language, as well as dictionaries of personal names. Background Hanks was educated at Ardingly College, ...
argue that the term comes from the Dutch ''Janneke'', a diminutive form of the given name ''Jan'' (John) which would be Anglicized by New Englanders as "Yankee" due to the Dutch pronunciation of ''J'' being the same as the English ''Y''. Quinion and Hanks posit that it was "used as a nickname for a Dutch-speaking American in colonial times" and could have grown to include non-Dutch colonists, as well. The Oxford English Dictionary calls this theory "perhaps the most plausible". Alternatively, two Dutch given names ''Jan'' () and '' Kees'' () have long been common, and the two are sometimes combined into a single name (Jan Kees). Its Anglicized spelling ''Yankee'' could, in this way, have been used to mock Dutch colonists. The chosen name ''Jan Kees'' may have been partly inspired by a dialectal rendition of ''Jan Kaas'' ("John Cheese"), the generic nickname that Southern Dutch (particularly Flemish) used for Dutch people living in the North.Harper, Douglas. ''Online Etymology Dictionary'':
Yankee
. 2013. Accessed 13 Jul 2013.
The Online Etymology Dictionary gives Yankee its origin as around 1683, attributing it to English colonists insultingly referring to Dutch colonists (especially freebooters). English privateer William Dampier relates his dealings in 1681 with Dutch fellow privateer, Captain Yanky (or Yanke). Linguist Jan de Vries notes that there was mention of a pirate named '' Dutch Yanky'' in the 17th century. '' The Life and Adventures of Sir Launcelot Greaves'' (1760) contains the passage, "Haul forward thy chair again, take thy berth, and proceed with thy story in a direct course, without yawing like a Dutch yanky." According to this theory, Dutch settlers of
New Amsterdam New Amsterdam ( nl, Nieuw Amsterdam, or ) was a 17th-century Dutch settlement established at the southern tip of Manhattan Island that served as the seat of the colonial government in New Netherland. The initial trading ''factory'' gave rise ...
started using the term against the English colonists of neighboring Connecticut.


Historic uses


Canadian usage

An early use of the term outside the United States was in the creation of
Sam Slick Sam Slick is a character created in 1835 by Thomas Chandler Haliburton, a Nova Scotian judge and author. With his wry wit and Yankee voice, Sam Slick of Slicksville put forward his views on "human nature" in a regular column in the '' Novascotian ...
the "Yankee Clockmaker" in a newspaper column in Halifax, Nova Scotia in 1835. The character was a plain-speaking American who becomes an example for Nova Scotians to follow in his industry and practicality; and his uncouth manners and vanity were the epitome of qualities that his creator detested. The character was developed by Thomas Chandler Haliburton, and it grew between 1836 and 1844 in a series of publications.Cogswell, F. (2000
Haliburton, Thomas Chandler
''Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online,'' Volume IX 1861–1870. University of Toronto/Université Laval. Retrieved on: 2011-08-15.


Damn Yankee

The ''damned Yankee'' usage dates from 1812. Confederates popularized it as a derogatory term for their Northern enemies during and after the American Civil War (1861–1865). Eventual Rhode Island Governor Bruce Sundlun had been a pilot in World War II, and he named his B-17F bomber ''Damn Yankee'' because a crewman from North Carolina nicknamed him with that epithet.


Yankee Doodle

A pervasive influence on the use of the term throughout the years has been the song "Yankee Doodle" which was popular during the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783). The song originated among the British troops during the French and Indian or Seven Years' War, creating a stereotype of the Yankee simpleton who stuck a feather in his cap and thought that he was stylish, but it was rapidly re-appropriated by American patriots after the
battles of Lexington and Concord The Battles of Lexington and Concord were the first military engagements of the American Revolutionary War. The battles were fought on April 19, 1775, in Middlesex County, Province of Massachusetts Bay, within the towns of Lexington, Concord ...
. Today, "Yankee Doodle" is the official
state song Forty-eight of the fifty U.S. states have one or more state songs, a type of regional anthem, which are selected by each state legislature as a symbol (or emblem) of that particular U.S. state. Some U.S. states have more than one official state ...
of Connecticut.


Cultural history

The term ''Yankee'' now may mean any resident of New England or of any of the
Northeastern United States The Northeastern United States, also referred to as the Northeast, the East Coast, or the American Northeast, is a geographic region of the United States. It is located on the Atlantic coast of North America, with Canada to its north, the Southe ...
. The original Yankees diffused widely across the northern United States, leaving their imprints in New York, the Upper Midwest, and places as far away as Seattle, San Francisco, and Honolulu. Yankees typically lived in villages consisting of clusters of separate farms. Often they were merchants, bankers, teachers, or professionals. Village life fostered local democracy, best exemplified by the open town meeting form of government that still exists today in New England. Village life also stimulated mutual oversight of moral behavior and emphasized civic virtue. From the New England seaports of Boston,
Salem Salem may refer to: Places Canada Ontario * Bruce County ** Salem, Arran–Elderslie, Ontario, in the municipality of Arran–Elderslie ** Salem, South Bruce, Ontario, in the municipality of South Bruce * Salem, Dufferin County, Ontario, part ...
,
Providence Providence often refers to: * Providentia, the divine personification of foresight in ancient Roman religion * Divine providence, divinely ordained events and outcomes in Christianity * Providence, Rhode Island, the capital of Rhode Island in the ...
, and New London, among others, the Yankees built international trade routes, stretching to China by 1800. Much of the profit from trading was reinvested in the textile and machine tools industries. In the book ''Dawn and the Dons; The Romance of Monterey,''
Tirey L. Ford Tirey Lafayette Ford (December 29, 1857 – June 26, 1928) was an American lawyer and Republican politician who served as a California State Senator and the 18th Attorney-General of California. He acted as General Counsel for the United Railroa ...
, in 1926, talks about Yankees from Boston loading hides in
Monterey, California Monterey (; es, Monterrey; Ohlone: ) is a city located in Monterey County on the southern edge of Monterey Bay on the U.S. state of California's Central Coast. Founded on June 3, 1770, it functioned as the capital of Alta California under bo ...
.


Stereotypes

Yankee ingenuity was a worldwide stereotype of inventiveness, technical solutions to practical problems, "know-how," self-reliance, and individual enterprise. The stereotype first appeared in the 19th century. As Mitchell Wilson notes, "Yankee ingenuity and Yankee git-up-and-go did not exist in colonial days." The great majority of Yankees gravitated toward the burgeoning cities of the northeast, while wealthy New Englanders also sent ambassadors to frontier communities where they became influential bankers and newspaper printers. They introduced the term "Universal Yankee Nation" to proselytize their hopes for national and global influence.


Religion

In religion, New England Yankees originally followed the Puritan tradition, as expressed in
Congregational churches Congregational churches (also Congregationalist churches or Congregationalism) are Protestant churches in the Calvinist tradition practising congregationalist church governance, in which each congregation independently and autonomously runs its ...
. Beginning in the late colonial period, many became Presbyterians,
Episcopalians Anglicanism is a Western Christian tradition that has developed from the practices, liturgy, and identity of the Church of England following the English Reformation, in the context of the Protestant Reformation in Europe. It is one of th ...
, Methodists,
Baptists Baptists form a major branch of Protestantism distinguished by baptizing professing Christian believers only ( believer's baptism), and doing so by complete immersion. Baptist churches also generally subscribe to the doctrines of soul compe ...
, or, later,
Unitarians Unitarian or Unitarianism may refer to: Christian and Christian-derived theologies A Unitarian is a follower of, or a member of an organisation that follows, any of several theologies referred to as Unitarianism: * Unitarianism (1565–present) ...
. Strait-laced 17th-century moralism as derided by novelist Nathaniel Hawthorne faded in the 18th century. The First Great Awakening (under
Jonathan Edwards Jonathan Edwards may refer to: Musicians *Jonathan and Darlene Edwards, pseudonym of bandleader Paul Weston and his wife, singer Jo Stafford *Jonathan Edwards (musician) (born 1946), American musician ** ''Jonathan Edwards'' (album), debut album ...
and others) in the mid-18th century and the Second Great Awakening in the early 19th century (under Charles Grandison Finney, among others) emphasized personal piety, revivals, and devotion to civic duty. Theologically,
Arminianism Arminianism is a branch of Protestantism based on the theological ideas of the Dutch Reformed theologian Jacobus Arminius (1560–1609) and his historic supporters known as Remonstrants. Dutch Arminianism was originally articulated in the ''Re ...
replaced the original Calvinism. Horace Bushnell introduced the idea of Christian nurture, through which children would be brought to religion without revivals.


Politics and reform

After 1800, Yankees spearheaded most reform movements, including those for the abolition of slavery, temperance in use of alcohol, increase in women's political rights, and improvement in women's education. Emma Willard and
Mary Lyon Mary Mason Lyon (; February 28, 1797 – March 5, 1849) was an American pioneer in women's education. She established the Wheaton Female Seminary in Norton, Massachusetts, (now Wheaton College) in 1834. She then established Mount Holyoke Femal ...
pioneered in the higher education of women, while Yankees comprised most of the reformers who went South during Reconstruction in the late 1860s to educate the Freedmen. Historian John Buenker has examined the worldview of the Yankee settlers in the Midwest:
Because they arrived first and had a strong sense of community and mission, Yankees were able to transplant New England institutions, values, and mores, altered only by the conditions of frontier life. They established a public culture that emphasized the work ethic, the sanctity of private property, individual responsibility, faith in residential and social mobility, practicality, piety, public order and decorum, reverence for public education, activists, honest, and frugal government, town meeting democracy, and he believed that there was a public interest that transcends particular and stock ambitions. Regarding themselves as the elect and just in a world rife with sin and corruption, they felt a strong moral obligation to define and enforce standards of community and personal behavior…. This pietistic worldview was substantially shared by British, Scandinavian, Swiss, English-Canadian and Dutch Reformed immigrants, as well as by German Protestants and many of the Forty-Eighters.
Yankees dominated New England, much of upstate New York, and much of the upper Midwest, and were the strongest supporters of the new Republican party in the 1860s. This was especially true for the
Congregationalists Congregational churches (also Congregationalist churches or Congregationalism) are Protestant churches in the Calvinist tradition practising congregationalist church governance, in which each congregation independently and autonomously runs its ...
, Presbyterians, and (after 1860) the Methodists among them. A study of 65 predominantly Yankee counties showed that they voted only 40% for the Whigs in 1848 and 1852, but became 61–65% Republican in presidential elections of 1856 through 1864. Ivy League universities remained bastions of old Yankee culture until well after World War II, particularly
Harvard Harvard University is a private Ivy League research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Founded in 1636 as Harvard College and named for its first benefactor, the Puritan clergyman John Harvard, it is the oldest institution of higher le ...
and Yale, as well as "
Little Ivy The Little Ivies are an unofficial group of small, academically competitive private liberal arts colleges in the Northeastern United States. The term Little Ivy derives from these schools' small student bodies, standards of academic excellence, ...
" liberal arts colleges.


Yankee stereotypes

President
Calvin Coolidge Calvin Coolidge (born John Calvin Coolidge Jr.; ; July 4, 1872January 5, 1933) was the 30th president of the United States from 1923 to 1929. Born in Vermont, Coolidge was a History of the Republican Party (United States), Republican lawyer ...
exemplified the modern Yankee stereotype. Coolidge moved from rural Vermont to urban Massachusetts and was educated at elite
Amherst College Amherst College ( ) is a private liberal arts college in Amherst, Massachusetts. Founded in 1821 as an attempt to relocate Williams College by its then-president Zephaniah Swift Moore, Amherst is the third oldest institution of higher educatio ...
. Yet his flint-faced, unprepossessing ways and terse rural speech proved politically attractive. "That Yankee twang will be worth a hundred thousand votes", explained one Republican leader. Coolidge's laconic ways and dry humor were characteristic of stereotypical rural "Yankee humor" at the turn of the 20th century.


Contemporary uses


In the United States

The term ''Yankee'' can have many different meanings within the United States that are contextually and geographically dependent. Traditionally, ''Yankee'' was most often used to refer to a New Englander descended from the original settlers of the region, thus often suggesting Puritanism and thrifty values. By the mid-20th century, some speakers applied the word to any American inhabiting the area north of the Mason–Dixon Line, though usually with a specific focus still on New England. ''New England Yankee'' might be used to differentiate. However, within New England itself, the term still refers more specifically to old-stock New Englanders of English descent. For example: In the Southern United States, the term is used in derisive reference to any Northerner, especially one who has migrated to the South and maintains derisive attitudes towards Southerners and the Southern way of life. Alabama lawyer and author Daniel Robinson Hundley in his book ''Social Relations in Our Southern States'' describes the Yankee as such:
Yankee with all these is looked upon usually as a term of reproach --signifying a shrewd, sharp, chaffering, oily-tongued, soft-sawdering, inquisitive, money-making, money-saving, and money-worshipping individual, who hails from Down East, and who is presumed to have no where else on the Globe a permanent local habitation, however ubiquitous he may be in his travels and pursuits.
Senator J. William Fulbright of Arkansas pointed out as late as 1966, "The very word 'Yankee' still wakens in Southern minds historical memories of defeat and humiliation, of the
burning of Atlanta The Battle of Atlanta was a battle of the Atlanta Campaign fought during the American Civil War on July 22, 1864, just southeast of Atlanta, Georgia. Continuing their summer campaign to seize the important rail and supply hub of Atlanta, Uni ...
and Sherman's March to the Sea, or of an ancestral farmhouse burned by Quantrill's Raiders". Ambrose Bierce defines the term in ''
The Devil's Dictionary ''The Devil's Dictionary'' is a satire, satirical dictionary written by American journalist Ambrose Bierce, consisting of common words followed by humorous and satirical definitions. The lexicon was written over three decades as a series of insta ...
'' as: "In Europe, an American. In the Northern States of our Union, a New Englander. In the Southern States the word is unknown. (See DAMNYANK.)" E. B. White humorously draws his own distinctions: Major League Baseball's New York Yankees acquired the name from journalists after the team moved from Baltimore in 1903, though they were officially known as the Highlanders until 1913. The regional Yankees–Red Sox rivalry can make the utterance of the term "Yankee" unwelcome to some fans in New England, especially to the most dedicated Red Sox fans living in the northeastern United States. The term ''
Swamp Yankee ''Swamp Yankee'' is a colloquial term for rural Yankees (northeastern Americans). The term "Yankee" connotes urbane industriousness, whereas the term "Swamp Yankee" suggests a more countrified, stubborn, independent, and less-refined sub-type. Usag ...
'' is sometimes used in rural Rhode Island, Connecticut, and southeastern Massachusetts to refer to Protestant farmers of moderate means and their descendants (in contrast to richer or urban Yankees); "swamp Yankee" is often regarded as a derogatory term. Scholars note that the famous Yankee "twang" survives mainly in the hill towns of interior New England, though it is disappearing even there. Mark Twain's 1889 novel '' A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court'' popularized the word as a nickname for residents of Connecticut, and Connecticut Air National Guard unit
103d Airlift Wing The 103rd Airlift Wing (103 AW) is a unit of the Connecticut Air National Guard, stationed at Bradley Air National Guard Base at Bradley International Airport, Windsor Locks, Connecticut. If activated to federal service with the United States Air ...
is nicknamed "The Flying Yankees." '' Yankee White'' is an administrative nickname for a background check undertaken in the United States of America for Department of Defense personnel and contractor employees working with the president and vice president.


In other countries

The shortened form ''Yank'' is used as a derogatory, pejorative, playful, or colloquial term for Americans in Britain, Australia, Canada, South Africa, Ireland, and New Zealand. The full ''Yankee'' may be considered mildly derogatory, depending on the country. The Spanish variation ''yanqui'' is sometimes used in Latin American contexts. Venezuelan Spanish has the word derived c. 1940 around the oil industry from ''petty yankee'' or ''petit yanqui'', a derogatory term for those who profess an exaggerated and often ridiculous admiration for anything from the United States. In Australia, the term ''seppo'' is sometimes used as a pejorative reference to Americans. It derives from traditional
rhyming slang Rhyming slang is a form of slang word construction in the English language. It is especially prevalent among Cockneys in England, and was first used in the early 19th century in the East End of London; hence its alternative name, Cockney rhymin ...
where ''yank'' is replaced with ''septic tank'' and shortened to ''seppo''. In the late 19th century, the Japanese were called "the Yankees of the East" in praise of their industriousness and drive to modernization. In Japan, the term has been used since the late 1970s to refer to a type of delinquent youth. In Finland, the word ''jenkki'' (yank) is sometimes used to refer to any American citizen, and ''Jenkkilä'' (Yankeeland) refers to the United States itself. It is not considered offensive or anti-American, but rather a colloquial expression. In Sweden, the word ''jänkare'' is a derivative of yankee that is used to refer to both American citizens and classic American cars from the 1950s that are popular in rural Sweden.Comments on H-South by Seppo K J Tamminen
h-net.msu.edu


See also

* Dixie, a term used to refer to the Southern United States *
Brother Jonathan Brother Jonathan is the personification of New England. He was also used as an emblem of the U.S. in general, and can be an allegory of capitalism. His too-short pants, too-tight waistcoat and old-fashioned style reflect his taste for inexpensi ...
*
Carpetbagger In the history of the United States, carpetbagger is a largely historical term used by Southerners to describe opportunistic Northerners who came to the Southern states after the American Civil War, who were perceived to be exploiting the lo ...
, Northerners in the South during Reconstruction *
26th Maneuver Enhancement Brigade The 26th Maneuver Enhancement Brigade ("Yankee") is a combat support brigade of the United States Army. Its headquarters is maintained by the Massachusetts Army National Guard. It draws its lineage from the Headquarters Company 26th Infantry D ...
(Yankee Division) * Jonkheer * Anti-Americanism * Yankee Doodle Dandy * Yankee ingenuity * '' Yanks Go Home'', British sitcom *
Brit Brit, Brits or BRIT may refer to: People Nicknames * British people, people of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, its Overseas Territories and the Crown Dependencies, and their descendants * Brit Hume (born 1943), American TV journalist * B ...
* Canuck *
Aussie Aussie is Australian slang for ''Australian'', both the adjective and the noun, and less commonly, Australia. Pronunciation In Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, the United Kingdom, and Ireland, the word is pronounced , hence the alternati ...
*
Kiwi Kiwi most commonly refers to: * Kiwi (bird), a flightless bird native to New Zealand * Kiwi (nickname), a nickname for New Zealanders * Kiwifruit, an edible berry * Kiwi dollar or New Zealand dollar, a unit of currency Kiwi or KIWI may also refe ...
* Boer * WASP


References


Notes


Further reading

* Beals, Carleton; ''Our Yankee Heritage: New England's Contribution to American Civilization'
(1955) online
* Conforti, Joseph A. ''Imagining New England: Explorations of Regional Identity from the Pilgrims to the Mid-Twentieth Century'
(2001) online
* Bushman, Richard L. ''From Puritan to Yankee: Character and the Social Order in Connecticut, 1690–1765'' (1967) * Daniels, Bruce C. ''New England Nation: The Country the Puritans Built'' (Palgrave Macmillan, 2012) 237 pp
excerpt and text search
* Ellis, David M. "The Yankee Invasion of New York 1783–1850". ''New York History'' (1951) 32:1–17. *
Fischer, David Hackett David Hackett Fischer (born December 2, 1935) is University Professor of History Emeritus at Brandeis University. Fischer's major works have covered topics ranging from large macroeconomic and cultural trends (''Albion's Seed,'' ''The Great Wave'' ...
. '' Albion's Seed: Four British Folkways in America'' (1989), Yankees comprise one of the four * Gjerde; Jon. ''The Minds of the West: Ethnocultural Evolution in the Rural Middle West, 1830–1917'
(1999) online
* Gray; Susan E. ''The Yankee West: Community Life on the Michigan Frontier'
(1996) online
* Handlin, Oscar. "Yankees", in ''Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups,'' ed. by Stephan Thernstrom, (1980) pp 1028–1030. * Hill, Ralph Nading. ''Yankee Kingdom: Vermont and New Hampshire.'
(1960).
* Holbrook, Stewart H. ''Yankee Exodus: An Account of Migration from New England'' (1950) * Holbrook, Stewart H.; ''Yankee Loggers: A Recollection of Woodsmen, Cooks, and River Drivers'' (1961) * Hudson, John C. "Yankeeland in the Middle West", '' Journal of Geography'' 85 (Sept 1986)
Jensen, Richard. "Yankees" in ''Encyclopedia of Chicago'' (2005).
* Kleppner; Paul. ''The Third Electoral System 1853–1892: Parties, Voters, and Political Cultures'' University of North Carolina Press. 1979, on Yankee voting behavior * Knights, Peter R.; ''Yankee Destinies: The Lives of Ordinary Nineteenth-Century Bostonians'
(1991) online
* Mathews, Lois K. ''The Expansion of New England'' (1909). * Piersen, William Dillon. ''Black Yankees: The Development of an Afro-American Subculture in Eighteenth-Century New England'' (1988) * Power, Richard Lyle. ''Planting Corn Belt Culture'' (1953), on Indiana * Rose, Gregory. "Yankees/Yorkers", in Richard Sisson ed, ''The American Midwest: An Interpretive Encyclopedia'' (2006) 193–95, 714–5, 1094, 1194, * Sedgwick, Ellery; ''The Atlantic Monthly, 1857–1909: Yankee Humanism at High Tide and Ebb'
(1994) online
* Smith, Bradford. ''Yankees in Paradise: The New England Impact on Hawaii'' (1956) * Taylor, William R. ''Cavalier and Yankee: The Old South and American National Character'' (1979) * WPA. ''Massachusetts: A Guide to Its Places and People.'' Federal Writers' Project of the Works Progress Administration of Massachusetts (1937). Linguistic * Davis, Harold. "On the Origin of Yankee Doodle", ''American Speech,'' Vol. 13, No. 2 (Apr., 1938), pp. 93–9
in JSTOR
* Fleser, Arthur F. "Coolidge's Delivery: Everybody Liked It." ''Southern Speech Journal'' 1966 32(2): 98–104. * Kretzschmar, William A. ''Handbook of the Linguistic Atlas of the Middle and South Atlantic States'' (1994) * Lemay, J. A. Leo "The American Origins of Yankee Doodle", ''William and Mary Quarterly'' 33 (Jan 1976) 435–6
in JSTOR
* Logemay, Butsee H. "The Etymology of 'Yankee'", ''Studies in English Philology in Honor of Frederick Klaeber'', (1929) pp 403–13. * Mathews, Mitford M. ''A Dictionary of Americanisms on Historical Principles'' (1951) pp 1896 ff for elaborate detail * Mencken, H. L.
The American Language ''The American Language; An Inquiry into the Development of English in the United States'', first published in 1919, is H. L. Mencken's book about the English language as spoken in the United States. Origins and concept Mencken was inspired by ...
(1919, 1921) * ''The Merriam-Webster new book of word histories'' (1991) * ''Oxford English Dictionary'' * Schell, Ruth. "Swamp Yankee", ''American Speech'', 1963, Volume 38, No.2 pg. 121–123
in JSTOR
* Sonneck, Oscar G. ''Report on "the Star-Spangled Banner" "Hail Columbia" "America" "Yankee Doodle"'' (1909
pp 83ff online
* Stollznow, Karen. 2006. "Key Words in the Discourse of Discrimination: A Semantic Analysis. PhD Dissertation: University of New England., Chapter 5.


External links


Online Etymology Dictionary

Wordorigins.org
{{Ethnic slurs American culture American regional nicknames Anti-Americanism English-American history Ethnic and religious slurs New England Regional nicknames English words