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In grammar, a frequentative form ( abbreviated or ) of a word is one that indicates repeated action, but is not to be confused with
iterative aspect In linguistics, the iterative aspect (abbreviated ), also called "semelfactive", "event-internal pluractionality", or "multiplicative", is a grammatical aspect that expresses the repetition of an event observable on one single occasion, as in 'he k ...
. The frequentative form can be considered a separate but not completely independent word called a frequentative. The frequentative is no longer productive in English, but still is in some language groups, such as Finno-Ugric, Balto-Slavic,
Turkic Turkic may refer to: * anything related to the country of Turkey * Turkic languages, a language family of at least thirty-five documented languages ** Turkic alphabets (disambiguation) ** Turkish language, the most widely spoken Turkic language * ...
, etc.


English

English has ''-le'' and -''er'' as frequentative
suffix In linguistics, a suffix is an affix which is placed after the stem of a word. Common examples are case endings, which indicate the grammatical case of nouns, adjectives, and verb endings, which form the conjugation of verbs. Suffixes can carry ...
es. Some frequentative verbs surviving in English and their parent verbs are listed below. Additionally, some frequentative verbs are formed by
reduplication In linguistics, reduplication is a morphological process in which the root or stem of a word (or part of it) or even the whole word is repeated exactly or with a slight change. The classic observation on the semantics of reduplication is Edwa ...
of a monosyllable (e.g., ''coo-cooing'', ''cf.'' Latin ''murmur''). Frequentative nouns are often formed by combining two different vowel grades of the same word (as in ''teeter-totter'', ''pitter-patter'', ''chitchat'', etc.) The present tense in English usually has a frequentative meaning. For example, "I walk to work." means "I walk to work most days.", and would be true even if the speaker was not on their way to work there at the time.


Finnish

In Finnish, a frequentative verb signifies a single action repeated, "around the place" both spatially and temporally. The complete translation would be "go — around aimlessly". There is a large array of different frequentatives, indicated by lexical agglutinative markers. In general, one frequentative is ''-:i-'', and another ''-ele-'', but it is almost always combined with something else. Some forms: * ''sataa — sadella — satelee'' "to rain — to rain occasionally — it rains occasionally" * ''ampua — ammuskella — ammuskelen'' "to shoot — go shooting around — I go shooting around" * ''juosta — juoksennella — juoksentelen '' "to run — to run around (to and fro) — I run around" * ''kirjoittaa — kirjoitella — kirjoittelen'' "to write — to write (something short) occasionally — I write "around"" * ''järjestää — järjestellä — järjestelen'' "to put in order — to arrange continuously, to play around — I play around (with them) in order to put them in order" * ''heittää — heittelehtiä — heittelehdit'' "to throw — to swerve — you swerve" * ''loikata — loikkia — loikin'' "to jump once — to jump (again and again) — I jump (again and again)" * ''istua — istuksia — istuksit'' "to sit — to sit (randomly somewhere), loiter — you loiter there by sitting" There are several frequentative morphemes, underlined above; these are affected by consonant gradation as indicated. Their meanings are slightly different; see the list, arranged ''infinitive''~''personal'': *''-ella''~''-ele-'': bare frequentative. *''-skella''~''-skele-'': frequentative unergative verb, where the action is wanton (arbitrary) *''-stella''~''-stele-'': frequentative
causative In linguistics, a causative (abbreviated ) is a valency-increasing operationPayne, Thomas E. (1997). Describing morphosyntax: A guide for field linguists'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 173–186. that indicates that a subject either ...
, where the subject causes something indicated in the root, as "order" vs. "to continuously try to put something in order". *''-nnella''~''-ntele-'': a frequentative, where an actor is required. The marker ''-nt-'' indicates a continuing effort, therefore ''-ntele-'' indicates a series of such efforts. *''-elehtia''~''-elehdi-'': movement that is random and compulsive, as in under pain, e.g. ''vääntelehtiä'' "writhe in pain", or ''heittelehtiä'' "to swerve" *''-:ia-''~''-i-'': a continuing action definitely at a point in time, where the action or effort is repeated. *''-ksia''~''-ksi-'': same as ''-i-'', but wanton, cf. ''-skella'' Frequentatives may be combined with momentanes, that is, to indicate the repetition of a short, sudden action. The momentane ''-ahta-'' can be prefixed with the frequentative ''-ele-'' to produce the morpheme ''-ahtele-'', as in ''täristä'' "to shake (continuously)" → ''tärähtää'' "to shake suddenly once" → ''tärähdellä'' "to shake, such that a single, sudden shaking is repeated". For example, the contrast between these is that ground shakes (''maa tärisee'') continuously when a large truck goes by, the ground shakes once (''maa tärähtää'') when a cannon fires, and the ground shakes suddenly but repeatedly (''maa tärähtelee'') when a battery of cannons is firing. Since the frequentative is a lexical, not a grammatical contrast, considerable semantic drift may have occurred. For a list of different real and hypothetical forms, see: Loanwords are put into the frequentative form, if the action is such. If the action can be nothing else but frequentative, the "basic form" doesn't even exist, such as with "to go shopping". * ''surffata — surffailla'' "to surf — to surf (around in the net)" * ''*shopata — shoppailla'' "*to shop once — to go shopping" Adjectives can similarly receive frequentative markers: ''iso — isotella'' "big — to talk big", or ''feikkailla'' < English ''fake'' "to be fake, blatantly and consistently".


Greek

In Homer and Herodotus, there is a past frequentative, usually called "past iterative", with an additional -sk- suffix before the endings.Greek Grammar, par. 495: iterative imperfects and aorists. * "I used to have" (imperfect ''ékh-on'') The same suffix is used in inchoative verbs in both Ancient Greek and Latin. The infix may occur in the forms -σκ-, -ασκ-, and -εσκ-. Homer regularly omits the augment. The iterative occurs most often in the imperfect, but also in the aorist.


Hungarian

In Hungarian it is quite common and everyday to use frequentative. Frequentative verbs are formed with the suffix ''–gat'' (''–get'' after a front vowel; see
vowel harmony In phonology, vowel harmony is an Assimilation (linguistics), assimilatory process in which the vowels of a given domain – typically a phonological word – have to be members of the same natural class (thus "in harmony"). Vowel harmony is t ...
). Also there is a so-called Template rule, which forces another vowel in between the base verb and the affix resulting in a word containing at least three syllables. Verbal prefixes (coverbs) do not count as a syllable. Some verbs' frequentative forms have acquired an independent non-frequentative meaning. In these cases the three syllables rule is not applied as the form is not considered a frequentative. These words can be affixed with ''–gat'' again to create a frequentative meaning. In rare cases non-verbs can be affixed by ''–gat'' to give them similar modification in meaning as to verbs. In most cases these non-verbs are obviously related to some actions, like a typical outcome or object. The resulting word basically has the same meaning as if the related verb were affixed with ''–gat''. The change in meaning of a frequentative compared to the base can be different depending on the base: The ''–gat'' affix can modify the occurrences or the intensity or both of an action. Occasionally it produces a specific meaning which is related but distinct from the original form's. Examples:


Latin

In Latin, frequentative verbs show repeated or intense action. They are formed from the supine stem with -tāre/-sāre, -itāre, -titāre/-sitāre added. *ventitāre, ‘come frequently or repeatedly’ (< venio, ‘come’; see Catullus 8, l. 4) *cantāre, ‘(continue to) sing’ (< canere, ‘sing a song’) *cursāre, ‘run around’ (< currere, ‘run’) *dictāre, ‘dictate’ (< dīcere, ‘speak, say’) *āctitāre, ‘zealously agitate’ and agitāre, ‘put into motion’ (< agere, ‘do, drive’) *pulsāre, ‘push/beat around’ (< pellere, ‘push (once), beat’) *iactāre, ‘shake, disturb’ (< iacere, ‘throw, cast’) *versāre, ‘turn often, keep turning’ (< vertere, ‘turn, revolve’) The deponent verb ''minārī'' (‘threaten’) has frequentatives of both deponent and active form: ''minitārī'' and ''minitāre''.


Lithuanian

Lithuanian Lithuanian may refer to: * Lithuanians * Lithuanian language * The country of Lithuania * Grand Duchy of Lithuania * Culture of Lithuania * Lithuanian cuisine * Lithuanian Jews as often called "Lithuanians" (''Lita'im'' or ''Litvaks'') by other Jew ...
has a past frequentative (or iterative), which serves to express a single action repeated in the past. Starting from the infinitive without –''ti'', it is formed by adding the invariant morpheme –''dav''– followed by the regular past tense suffix of the first conjugation. For instance, ''dirb·ti'' ("to work", a first-conjugation verb), whose plain past tense is ''dirb·au'' ("I worked" or "I have worked"), has a past iterative of ''dirb·dav·au'' ("I used to work"). The six intersections of person and number map onto five distinct frequentative endings; there is no morphological distinction of number in the third person, nor of conjugation class in general. The closest relative of Lithuanian, Latvian, as well as the Samogitian dialect of the language, has no separate past tense to mark iterative aspect; in its place, however, both may express it by means of
periphrasis In linguistics, periphrasis () is the use of one or more function words to express meaning that otherwise may be expressed by attaching an affix or clitic to a word. The resulting phrase includes two or more collocated words instead of one infl ...
. An auxiliary verb – ''mēgt'' in Latvian and ''liuobėti'' in Samogitian – will then occupy the syntactic centre of the verb phrase (subject to conjugation), relegating the main verb to trail it as an (invariant) infinitive complement. Consider the following three translations of the English sentence "We used to read a lot." * Lithuanian: ''Mes daug skaitydavome.'' * Samogitian: ''Mes liuobiam daug skaitītė.'' * Latvian: ''Mēs mēdzām daudz lasīt.''


Polish

In the Polish language, certain imperfective verbs ending in ''-ać'' denote repeated or habitual action. * ''jeść'' (to eat) → ''jadać'' (to eat habitually) * ''iść'' (to walk) → ''chadzać''. * ''widzieć'' (to see) → ''widywać'' * ''pisać'' (to write) → ''pisywać'' * ''czytać'' (to read) → ''czytywać'' The interfix ''-yw-'' used to form many frequentative verbs has a different function for prefixed perfective verbs: it serves to create their imperfective equivalents. For instance, ''rozczytywać'' (to try to read something barely legible) is simply an imperfective equivalent of ''rozczytać'' (to succeed at reading something barely legible).


Russian

In the
Russian language Russian (russian: русский язык, russkij jazyk, link=no, ) is an East Slavic languages, East Slavic language mainly spoken in Russia. It is the First language, native language of the Russians, and belongs to the Indo-European langua ...
, the frequentative form of verbs to denote a repeated or customary action is produced by inserting suffixes -ива-/-ыва-, -ва- or -а́-, often accompanied with a change in the root of the word (
vowel alternation In linguistics, apophony (also known as ablaut, (vowel) gradation, (vowel) mutation, alternation, internal modification, stem modification, stem alternation, replacive morphology, stem mutation, internal inflection etc.) is any alternation wit ...
, change of the last root consonant) and stress shift. * ви́деть (to see) → ви́дывать (to see repeatedly) * сиде́ть (to sit) → си́живать * ходи́ть (to walk) → ха́живать * носи́ть (to wear) → на́шивать * гла́дить (to stroke) → погла́живать * знать (to know) → знава́ть * есть (to eat) → еда́ть * писа́ть (to write) → попи́сывать An interesting example is with the word ''брать'' (to take); an archaic usage recorded among
hunter Hunting is the human activity, human practice of seeking, pursuing, capturing, or killing wildlife or feral animals. The most common reasons for humans to hunt are to harvest food (i.e. meat) and useful animal products (fur/hide (skin), hide, ...
s, normally used in the past tense, in hunter's boasting: бирал, бирывал meaning "used to take (quite a few) trophies".


Reduplication

The simplest way to produce a frequentative is
reduplication In linguistics, reduplication is a morphological process in which the root or stem of a word (or part of it) or even the whole word is repeated exactly or with a slight change. The classic observation on the semantics of reduplication is Edwa ...
, either of the entire word or of one of its phonemes. This is common in Austronesian languages such as Niuean, although reduplication also serves to pluralize and intensify nouns and adjectives.


See also

*
Continuous and progressive aspects The continuous and progressive aspects (abbreviated and ) are grammatical aspects that express incomplete action ("to do") or state ("to be") in progress at a specific time: they are non-habitual, imperfective aspects. In the grammars of many l ...
* Inchoative verb


References


Sources

* {{lexical categories, state=collapsed Grammatical aspects Verb types Lithuanian grammar Finnish grammar Turkish grammar