There are many pressing environmental issues in

Mongolia Mongolia; Mongolian script: , , ; lit. "Mongol Nation" or "State of Mongolia" () is a landlocked country in East Asia, bordered by Russia to the north and China to the south. It covers an area of , with a population of just 3.3 million, ...

that are detrimental to both human and environmental wellness. These problems have arisen in part due to natural factors, but increasingly because of human actions. One of these issues is

climate change In common usage, climate change describes global warming—the ongoing increase in global average temperature—and its effects on Earth's climate system. Climate change in a broader sense also includes previous long-term changes to ...

, which will be responsible for an increase in desertification, natural disasters, and

land degradation Land degradation is a process in which the value of the biophysical environment is affected by a combination of human-induced processes acting upon the land. It is viewed as any change or disturbance to the land perceived to be deleterious o ...

. Another is

deforestation Deforestation or forest clearance is the removal of a forest or stand of trees from land that is then converted to non-forest use. Deforestation can involve conversion of forest land to farms, ranches, or urban use. The most concentrated ...

, which is expanding due to human recklessness, pests, disease, and fires. Mongolian lands are becoming more arid through desertification, a process that is being exacerbated due to irresponsible

land use Land use involves the management and modification of natural environment or wilderness into built environment such as settlements and semi-natural habitats such as arable fields, pastures, and managed woods. Land use by humans has a long ...

. Additionally, more and more species are disappearing and at risk for extinction. Moreover, especially in population centers, Mongolians deal with

air The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases, known collectively as air, retained by Earth's gravity that surrounds the planet and forms its planetary atmosphere. The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by creating pressure allowing f ...

and

water pollution Water pollution (or aquatic pollution) is the contamination of water bodies, usually as a result of human activities, so that it negatively affects its uses. Water bodies include lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers, reservoirs and groundwater. ...

caused by industrialization.

Climate change

Climate change In common usage, climate change describes global warming—the ongoing increase in global average temperature—and its effects on Earth's climate system. Climate change in a broader sense also includes previous long-term changes to ...

has threatened the ways of life for traditional pastoralist herders, as it is a driving factor of disruptive ''duds,'' also known as climatic events or natural disasters. Winter storms,

drought A drought is defined as drier than normal conditions.Douville, H., K. Raghavan, J. Renwick, R.P. Allan, P.A. Arias, M. Barlow, R. Cerezo-Mota, A. Cherchi, T.Y. Gan, J. Gergis, D. Jiang, A. Khan, W. Pokam Mba, D. Rosenfeld, J. Tierney, an ...

periods, and extreme temperatures have become more frequent. Leading up to 2000, there were approximately 20 extreme events per year, but since 2000, this number has doubled to 40 events per year. Between 2008 and 2010 Mongolia experienced 153 extreme events, most of which being strong winds, storms, and floods from run-off. Since 1940, the average year wise temperature in Mongolia has increased by at least 1.8 °C. This temperature shift is deemed responsible for an increase in

grassland A grassland is an area where the vegetation is dominated by grasses ( Poaceae). However, sedge ( Cyperaceae) and rush ( Juncaceae) can also be found along with variable proportions of legumes, like clover, and other herbs. Grasslands occur na ...

aridity, and as a result, a lowering of the production of biomass. The Gobi desert is expected to creep northward at approximately 6–7 km / year, which is expected to further limit

pastureland Pasture (from the Latin ''pastus'', past participle of ''pascere'', "to feed") is land used for grazing. Pasture lands in the narrow sense are enclosed tracts of farmland, grazed by domesticated livestock, such as horses, cattle, sheep, or swine ...

. Another result of these meteorological shifts is expected to be precipitation that occurs in concentrated bursts and cannot be absorbed by the soil. The rising temperatures will also melt high mountain

glacier A glacier (; ) is a persistent body of dense ice that is constantly moving under its own weight. A glacier forms where the accumulation of snow exceeds its ablation over many years, often centuries. It acquires distinguishing features, such as ...

s, degrade permafrost, and will cause more transpiration from plants. Mongolia, specifically for Ulaanbaatar's vulnerable neighborhoods, is receiving help from the European Investment Bank in converting neighborhoods vulnerable to climate change into more climate-resilient and ecological districts. Plans call for constructing 10,000 houses in 20 environmentally friendly neighborhoods with easy access to businesses and nearby employment. Women-led families in Mongolia will have preferential access to this new green affordable housing, and 40% of workplaces and at least 40% of green mortgage loans will go to women-led companies. Fire Destroyed Forest in Mongolia

Deforestation

Mongolia has low forest resources, and due to its harsh climate, the growth of its forests is slow. Nevertheless, the forests help maintain water conditions, prevent

soil degradation Soil retrogression and degradation are two regressive evolution processes associated with the loss of equilibrium of a stable soil. Retrogression is primarily due to soil erosion and corresponds to a phenomenon where succession reverts the land to ...

, preserve permafrost, and control greenhouse gases and other harmful emissions. However, these limited forest resources have been diminishing due to logging, fires, pests, and disease. By 2000, over 1.2 million ha of forested land had been invaded by pests. Due to the spread of pests, over 300,000 ha of forest was unable to grow. Fires saw increased regularity due to carelessness of people who entered the forest (such as through escaped

campfire A campfire is a fire at a campsite that provides light and warmth, and heat for cooking. It can also serve as a beacon, and an insect and predator deterrent. Established campgrounds often provide a stone or steel fire ring for safety. Campfires ...

s, military activities, agricultural machinery), further deteriorating the forest cover. In 2008, 178 forest fires occurred, affecting 927,990 hectares of steppe and causing a 17.6 billion loss in tugriks. Trees were also cut for use as fuel, amounting to a yearly 1.3 million cubic meters of wood a year. Additionally, the timber industry's poor logging techniques and inefficiency led to only 60% of the timber being used for profit. The result of all of these factors, is that from 1980 to 2000, 10% of the forest cover in Mongolia was lost. This deforestation has caused lowering of

groundwater level The water table is the upper surface of the zone of saturation. The zone of saturation is where the pores and fractures of the ground are saturated with water. It can also be simply explained as the depth below which the ground is saturated. T ...

s, flash floods, and more desertification. Three central pieces of legislation in dealing with this issue have been the "Law on Forests," the "Law on Protection of Forests and Steppe Fires," and the "Law on Levying Fees on the Harvest of Timber and Firewood." Together, these laws establish that 70% or more of income gained from timber harvest must be used for

forest protection Forest protection is a branch of forestry which is concerned with the preservation or improvement of a forest and prevention and control of damage to forest by natural or man made causes like forest fires, plant pests, and adverse climatic cond ...

and restoration. These laws have been supplemented by other forest protection regulations and resolutions. Despite this, as of 2004, the reforestation rate hangs below 15%. Mongolia had a 2018

Forest Landscape Integrity Index The Forest Landscape Integrity Index (FLII) is an annual global index of forest condition measured by degree of anthropogenic modification. Created by a team of 48 scientists, the FLII, in its measurement of 300m pixels of forest across the globe ...

mean score of 9.36/10, ranking it 6th globally out of 172 countries.

Desertification

Desertification is defined as the process of fertile land becoming desert, and is characterized by loss of

vegetation cover Vegetation is an assemblage of plant species and the ground cover they provide. It is a general term, without specific reference to particular taxa, life forms, structure, spatial extent, or any other specific botanical or geographic character ...

, increase of sand area, and drying-out of wetland areas. At least 90% of Mongolia's pastureland has experienced some level of desertification. Between 1996 and 2009 up to a third of rivers dried out or were impacted by drought conditions. It has been found that desertification is predominantly (approximately 87%) caused by human factors rather than natural factors. These anthropogenic factors include

overgrazing Overgrazing occurs when plants are exposed to intensive grazing for extended periods of time, or without sufficient recovery periods. It can be caused by either livestock in poorly managed agricultural applications, game reserves, or nature res ...

of livestock,

erosion Erosion is the action of surface processes (such as water flow or wind) that removes soil, rock, or dissolved material from one location on the Earth's crust, and then transports it to another location where it is deposited. Erosion is dis ...

of farmland soils, burning, and

. In Mongolia, over 70% of pastureland is now degraded, and the vegetation growth rate has shrunken by a factor of 5. From 2007 to 2010 the forest covered area has decreased by 383,600 hectares. The Mongolian government has created a National Committee to Combat Desertification and National Center to Combat Desertification. Between 1990 and 2001, the government has spent $24.6 million on 14 anti-desertification projects in Mongolia.

Loss of biodiversity

Mongolia supports an innate

biodiversity Biodiversity or biological diversity is the variety and variability of life on Earth. Biodiversity is a measure of variation at the genetic (''genetic variability''), species (''species diversity''), and ecosystem (''ecosystem diversity'') l ...

, owing to its unique and often undisturbed ecosystems. It has some of the last populations of the world's endangered species, and has many species that can only be found within it. However, Mongolia's biodiversity is threatened by its growing population and demand for natural resources. These pressures bring on activities such as farming,

mining Mining is the extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the Earth, usually from an ore body, lode, vein, seam, reef, or placer deposit. The exploitation of these deposits for raw material is based on the economic ...

, and hunting in previously undisturbed areas. Wildlife are hunted and harvested in a variety of ways, including direct use of meat and animal products, and commercial marketing of these animals. There are large-scale harvests of both

gazelle A gazelle is one of many antelope species in the genus ''Gazella'' . This article also deals with the seven species included in two further genera, '' Eudorcas'' and '' Nanger'', which were formerly considered subgenera of ''Gazella''. A third ...

s and fish for commercial use. Another phenomenon is the harvest of rare and valuable animals by foreign hunters who carry special licenses. The Mongolian government has taken steps to address the issue of

biodiversity loss Biodiversity loss includes the worldwide extinction of different species, as well as the local reduction or loss of species in a certain habitat, resulting in a loss of biological diversity. The latter phenomenon can be temporary or permanent, de ...

. As of 2002, there are 11 protected land areas in Mongolia. The government has also passed The Mongolian Law on Environmental Protection (1995) which includes ecological training, compensation for environmental damage, economic incentives for environmental protection, and NGO participation in protection. Other notable laws include the Mongolian Law on Hunting (1995) that regulates the protection and proper use of hunted animals, The Mongolian Law on Natural Plants (1995) that regulates protection and restoration of plants, and The Law on Water (1995), which protects water reserves and quality.

Pollution

Air pollution

Indoor air pollution

Indoor air pollution is a problem in Mongolia, due to the burning of coal and biomass as fuels within homes, and improper ventilation. Because of Mongolia's very cold winters (that have temperatures averaging below 0 from November to March) and often cold nights, Mongolians need a lot of energy for heating in addition to the energy needed for cooking. In the ''gers'' (traditional Mongolian dwellings), coal is the most used form of fuel, and the burning of coal and other biomass (such as wood, crop residue etc.) in simple stoves causes the air within the living spaces to have elevated levels of

carbon monoxide Carbon monoxide (chemical formula CO) is a colorless, poisonous, odorless, tasteless, flammable gas that is slightly less dense than air. Carbon monoxide consists of one carbon atom and one oxygen atom connected by a triple bond. It is the simple ...

and particulate matter.

Urban air pollution

Air pollution is a problem in Mongolia's cities, especially in

Ulaanbaatar Ulaanbaatar (; mn, Улаанбаатар, , "Red Hero"), previously anglicized as Ulan Bator, is the capital and most populous city of Mongolia. It is the coldest capital city in the world, on average. The municipality is located in north ce ...

, the largest and most densely populated city in Mongolia. The pollution in Ulaanbaatar comes from the emissions of vehicles, power plants, ''gers,'' and other industrial activity''.'' From 1995 to 2002, the number of vehicles in Ulaanbaatar more than doubled. Approximately 80% of vehicles in the city do not meet emission or fuel efficiency standards. This results in vehicles adding 70 tons of pollutants to the air every year. The major rise of automobiles in the city has corresponded with increasing levels of nitrogen dioxide. During the cold season, there is an increased use of energy for heating purposes, and as a result increased levels of air pollution. During the winter, the three diesel power plants in Ulaanbaatar release 4.5 million cubic meters of gaseous pollutants. There are also many coal-fired power plants in Ulaanbatar. Over 250 steam boilers burn 400,000 tons of coal every year, and ''gers'' and houses with manual heating burn over 200,000 cubic meters of fuel wood every year. Suspended particulate matter, (caused by dust storms and pollution) has been shown to peak in winter months. Daily averages of particulate concentration in the air can range from two-to-three times higher than international standards. Particulate concentrations have been shown to correlate with premature death. In the cold seasons, the atmospheric content of carbon monoxide is 2–4 times the permissible amount and acute respiratory diseases (such as tuberculosis and other lung diseases) are reported to be higher during winter as well.

Water pollution

Mongolia's mining industry is linked with water pollution issues. After the collapse of the

Soviet Union The Soviet Union,. officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR),. was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 to 1991. A flagship communist state, ...

in 1991, the Mongolian Government initiated policies that allowed the mining industry to operate with relatively few regulations, for the purpose of economic growth.Walsh-Pickering David
Center for International and Defense Policy, ''The Rivers Movements in Mongolia'' The new Mineral Law of 1997'','' enacted after the right-of-center Democratic Union came to power in 1996, served to liberalize the mining industry by weakening the restrictions for gaining mining license and allowing for foreign ownership of mining enterprises. Subsequently, mining, and especially gold mining which makes up 60% of the industry, has experienced significant growth. From 1991 to 2001 production of gold increased 17-fold. However, this growth has caused environmental concerns, one of the main being

. Mining deposits of cyanide, sulfuric acid, and other toxins are often found in river basins and headwaters. Inefficient use of large quantities of water for the purposes of extracting gold have caused further pollution and the drying up of streams. Mining has been identified as the cause of pollution in 28 rivers and streams. Additionally, the state has a weak site monitoring system. As a backlash to the effects of mining on water quality, the Ongi River Movement formed in 2001. Its goal was to protect the

Ongi River The Ongi River ( mn, Онги гол, zh, 翁金河, 翁金高勒) flows from the southeastern slopes of the Khangai Mountains in Övörkhangai Province for through the endorheic Ongi River Basin in Mongolia and through the aimag capital Arvai ...

and prevent further degradation. The group participated in grassroots organizing activities and succeeded in stopping 36 out of 37 mining licenses issued along the Ongi River. The Ongi River Movement joined with other River Movements in 2006 to form the Homeland and Water Protection Coalition. The HWPC dissolved in 2008 due to internal disagreements, but the organization set the precedent for how local activists can create national change in Mongolia. One of the groups that arose after the HWPC was the United Movement of Mongolian Rivers and Lakes. This group was instrumental in winning the passage of a law that prohibited mining at the headwater of rivers. Water pollution can also be linked to non-treated and semi-treated human and industrial waste discharge. Annually over 120 million cubic meters of waste waster is disposed of without treatment.

References

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