USS President (1800)

USS ''President'' was a wooden-hulled, three- masted heavy frigate of the United States Navy, nominally rated at 44 guns. She was launched in April 1800 from a shipyard in New York City. ''President'' was one of the original six frigates whose construction the Naval Act of 1794 had authorized, and she was the last to be completed. The name "President" was among ten names submitted to President George Washington by Secretary of War Timothy Pickering in March of 1795 for the frigates that were to be constructed. Joshua Humphreys designed these frigates to be the young Navy's capital ships, and so ''President'' and her sisters were larger and more heavily armed and built than standard frigates of the period. Forman Cheeseman, and later Christian Bergh were in charge of her construction. Her first duties with the newly formed United States Navy were to provide protection for American merchant shipping during the Quasi War with France and to engage in a punitive expedition against the Barbary pirates in the First Barbary War.

On 16 May 1811, ''President'' was at the center of the Little Belt affair; her crew mistakenly identified as , which had impressed an American seaman. The ships exchanged cannon fire for several minutes. Subsequent U.S. and Royal Navy investigations placed responsibility for the attack on each other without a resolution. The incident contributed to tensions between the U.S. and Great Britain that led to the War of 1812.

During the war, ''President'' made several extended cruises, patrolling as far away as the English Channel and Norway; she captured the armed schooner and numerous merchant ships. In January 1815, after having been blockaded in New York for a year by the Royal Navy, ''President'' attempted to run the blockade, and was chased by a blockading squadron. During the chase, she was engaged and crippled by the frigate off the coast of the city. The British squadron captured ''President'' soon after, and the Royal Navy took her into service as HMS ''President'' until she was broken up in 1818. ''President''s design was copied and used to build the next in 1829.

Design and construction

During the 1790s, American merchant vessels began to fall prey to Barbary pirates in the Mediterranean, most notably from Algiers. Congress's response was the Naval Act of 1794.Allen (1909), pp. 41–42. The Act provided funds for the construction of six frigates; however, it included a clause stating that construction of the ships would cease if the United States agreed to peace terms with Algiers.Beach (1986), p. 29.''An Act to provide a Naval Armament''. (1794). Library of Congress. Retrieved 17 February 2011.

Joshua Humphreys' design was long on keel and narrow of beam (width) to allow for mounting very heavy guns. The design incorporated a diagonal scantling (rib) scheme to limit hogging (warping); the ships were given extremely heavy planking. This gave the hull greater strength than those of more lightly built frigates. Humphreys developed his design after realizing that the fledgling United States Navy could not match the navies of the European states for size. He therefore designed his frigates to be able to overpower other frigates, but with the speed to escape from a ship of the line.Toll (2006), pp. 49–53.Beach (1986), pp. 29–30, 33.Allen (1909), pp. 42–45.

George Washington named ''President'' in order to reflect a principle of the United States Constitution.Toll (2006), p. 61. In March 1796, before ''President''s keel could be laid down, a peace accord was announced between the United States and Algiers. Construction was suspended in accordance with the Naval Act of 1794. At the onset of the Quasi-War with France in 1798, funds were approved to complete her construction, and her keel was laid at a shipyard in New York City. Her original naval constructor was Forman Cheeseman and the superintendent was Captain Silas Talbot.Toll (2006), p. 107.

Based on experience Humphreys gained during construction of ''President''s sister ships, and , he instructed Cheeseman to make alterations to the frigate's design. These included raising the gun deck by and moving the main mast further rearward. ''President'' was built to a length of between perpendiculars and a beam of .

Although construction was begun at New York in the shipyard of Foreman Cheesman, work on her was discontinued in 1796. Construction resumed in 1798, under Christian Bergh and naval constructor William Doughty.Canney, Donald (2001), Sailing Warships of the US Navy p. 38.

Armament

''President''s nominal rating was that of a 44-gun ship. However, she usually carried over 50 guns.Roosevelt (1883), pp. 55–56. During her service in the War of 1812, ''President'' was armed with a battery of 55 guns: thirty-two 24-pounder (10.9 kg) cannon, twenty-two 42-pounder (19 kg) carronades, and one 18-pounder (8 kg) long gun.

During her Royal Navy service as HMS ''President'', she was initially rated at 50 guns, although she was at this stage armed with 60 cannons—thirty 24-pounder guns (10.9 kg) on the upper deck, twenty-eight 42-pounder (19 kg) carronades on the spar deck, plus two more 24-pounder guns on the forecastle. In February 1817, she was again re-rated, this time to 60 guns.

Unlike modern Navy vessels, ships of this era had no permanent battery of guns. Guns were portable and were often exchanged between ships as situations warranted. Each commanding officer modified his vessel's armaments to his liking, taking into consideration factors such as the overall tonnage of cargo, complement of personnel aboard, and planned routes to be sailed. Consequently, a vessel's armament would change often during its career; records of the changes were not generally kept.Jennings (1966), pp. 17–19.

Quasi and First Barbary Wars

''President'' launched on 10 April 1800—the last of the original six frigates to do so. After her fitting out, she departed for Guadeloupe on 5 August with Captain Thomas Truxtun in command. She conducted routine patrols during the latter part of the Quasi-War and made several recaptures of American merchant ships. Nevertheless, her service in this period was uneventful. She returned to the United States in March, after a peace treaty with France was ratified on 3 February 1801.Allen (1909), pp. 217, 221.
During the Quasi-War, the United States paid tribute to the Barbary States to ensure that they would not seize or harass American merchant ships.Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, pp. 215–216. In 1801 Yusuf Karamanli of Tripoli, dissatisfied with the amount of tribute in comparison to that paid to Algiers, demanded an immediate payment of $250,000.Allen (1905), pp. 88, 90. Thomas Jefferson responded by sending a squadron of warships to protect American merchant ships in the Mediterranean and to pursue peace with the Barbary States.Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, p. 228.Allen (1905), p. 92.

In May, Commodore Richard Dale selected ''President'' as his flagship for the assignment in the Mediterranean. Dale's orders were to present a show of force off Algiers, Tripoli, and Tunis and maintain peace with promises of tribute. Dale was authorized to commence hostilities at his discretion if any Barbary State had declared war by the time of his arrival. Dale's squadron consisted of ''President'', , , and .Cooper (1856), p. 151. The squadron arrived at Gibraltar on 1 July; ''President'' and ''Enterprise'' quickly continued to Algiers, where their presence convinced the regent to withdraw threats he had made against American merchant ships.Allen (1905), pp. 94–95.Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, p. 231. ''President'' and ''Enterprise'' subsequently made appearances at Tunis and Tripoli before ''President'' arrived at Malta on 16 August to replenish drinking water supplies.Allen (1905), p. 95.

Blockading the harbor of Tripoli on 24 August, ''President'' captured a Greek vessel with Tripolitan soldiers aboard. Dale negotiated an exchange of prisoners that resulted in the release of several Americans held captive in Tripoli.Cooper (1856), p. 153.Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, pp. 232–233. ''President'' arrived at Gibraltar on 3 September.Allen (1905), p. 98. Near Mahón in early December, ''President'' struck a large rock while traveling at . The impact brought Dale on deck and he successfully navigated ''President'' out of danger. An inspection revealed that the impact had twisted off a short section of her keel.Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, p. 233. ''President'' remained in the Mediterranean until March 1802; she departed for the United States and arrived on 14 April.Allen (1905), pp. 99–100.

Although ''President'' remained in the United States, operations against the Barbary States continued. A second squadron assembled under the command of Richard Valentine Morris in . Morris' poor performance resulted in his recall and subsequent dismissal from the Navy in 1803.Toll (2006), p. 173. A third squadron assembled under the command of Edward Preble in ; by July 1804, they had fought the Battle of Tripoli Harbor.Allen (1905), p. 200.

Second Barbary patrol

In April 1804, President Jefferson decided to reinforce Preble's squadron. ''President'', ''Congress'', ''Constellation'', and ''Essex'' prepared to sail as soon as possible under the direction of Commodore Samuel Barron.Allen (1905), pp. 198–199. Barron selected ''President'' as his flagship, but she required a new bowsprit and repairs to her masts and rigging. Some two months passed before the squadron was ready to sail. They departed in late June and arrived at Gibraltar on 12 August.Allen (1905), p. 218.Toll (2006), pp. 224–227.

''President'' left Gibraltar on 16 August with ''Constellation''; the frigates paused at Malta before arriving off Tripoli on 10 September, joining ''Constitution'', , and .Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, p. 297. Sighting three ships running the blockade of Tripoli, the squadron moved in to capture them; during the pursuit, a sudden change in wind direction caused ''President'' to collide with ''Constitution''. The collision caused serious damage to ''Constitution''s stern, bow, and figurehead. Two of the captured ships were sent to Malta with ''Constitution''; ''President'' sailed to Syracuse, Sicily, arriving on 27 August.Allen (1905), pp. 219–220.Toll (2006), pp. 250–251.

When Barron arrived in the Mediterranean, his seniority of rank over Preble entitled him to assume the duties of commodore.Toll (2006), p. 250. However, soon after replacing Preble, Barron went ashore at Syracuse in poor health and became bedridden.Allen (1905), p. 220. Under command of Captain George Cox, ''President'' began routine blockade duties of Tripoli during the winter months of 1804–05. In late April 1805, ''Constitution'' captured three ships off Tripoli. ''President'' escorted them to port at Malta before rejoining ''Constitution''.Allen (1905), pp. 220–223.

Barron's fragile health necessitated his resignation; he passed command to John Rodgers in late May 1805.Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, p. 300. Barron ordered Cox to command ''Essex'', and turned ''President'' over to his brother, James Barron, on 29 May. On 3 June, after the Battle of Derne, the U.S signed a peace treaty with Tripoli.Allen (1905), p. 250. ''President'' sailed for the United States on 13 July, carrying the ailing Barron and many sailors released from captivity in Tripoli.Allen (1905), p. 270.

''Little Belt'' Affair

In 1807, the ''Chesapeake''-''Leopard'' Affair heightened tensions between the United States and Britain. In preparation for further hostilities, Congress began authorizing naval appropriations, and ''President'' recommissioned in 1809 under the command of Commodore John Rodgers. She made routine and uneventful patrols, mainly along the United States' eastern seaboard, until 1 May 1811, when the British frigate stopped the American brig ''Spitfire'' from New York and impressed a crewman.Beach (1986), p. 69.Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, p. 312.Cooper (1856), pp. 233, 235.

Rodgers received orders to pursue ''Guerriere'', and ''President'' sailed immediately from Fort Severn on 10 May. On 16 May, approximately northeast of Cape Henry, a lookout spotted a sail on the horizon. Closing to investigate, Rodgers determined the sail belonged to a warship, and raised signal flags to identify his ship. The unidentified ship, later learned to be —a 20-gun sixth rate—hoisted signal flags in return, but the hoist was not understood by ''President''s crew. ''Little Belt'' sailed southward and Rodgers, believing the ship to be ''Guerriere'', pursued.Cooper (1856), pp. 235–236.Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, pp. 313–314.

Darkness set in before the ships were within hailing distance, and Rodgers hailed twice, only to have the same question returned to him: "What ship is that?"Toll (2006), pp. 321–322. According to Rodgers, immediately after the exchange of hails, ''Little Belt'' fired a shot that tore through ''President''s rigging. Rodgers returned fire. ''Little Belt'' promptly answered with three guns, and then a whole broadside. Rodgers ordered his gun crews to fire at will; several accurate broadsides heavily damaged ''Little Belt'' in return. After five minutes of firing, ''President''s crew realized their adversary was much smaller than a frigate and Rodgers ordered a cease fire. However, ''Little Belt'' fired again and ''President'' answered with more broadsides. After ''Little Belt'' became silent, ''President'' stood off and waited overnight. At dawn it was obvious that ''Little Belt'' was greatly damaged from the fight; Rodgers sent a boat over from ''President'' to offer assistance in repairing the damage. Her Captain, Arthur Bingham, acknowledged the damage; declining any help, he sailed to Halifax, Nova Scotia.Beach (1986), p. 70. ''President'' had one sailor slightly wounded in the exchange, while ''Little Belt'' suffered 31 killed or wounded.Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, pp. 314–315.Cooper (1856), pp. 236–237.

Upon ''President''s return to port, the U.S. Navy launched an investigation into the incident. Gathering testimony from ''President''s officers and crewmen, they determined that ''Little Belt'' had fired the first shot in the encounter. In the Royal Navy investigation, Captain Bingham insisted that ''President'' had fired the first shot and continued firing for 45 minutes, rather than the five minutes Rodgers claimed. In all subsequent reports, both captains continually insisted that the other ship had fired the first shot. Reaching a stalemate, the American and British governments quietly dropped the matter.Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, pp. 315–316.Cooper (1856), pp. 237–238.Toll (2006), p. 323.

War of 1812

The United States declared war against Britain on 18 June 1812. Three days later, within an hour of receiving official word of the declaration, Commodore Rodgers sailed from New York City. The commodore sailed aboard ''President'', leading a squadron consisting of ''United States'', ''Congress'', , and on a 70-day North Atlantic cruise.Roosevelt (1883), p. 73.Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, p. 322. A passing American merchant ship informed Rodgers about a fleet of British merchantmen en route to Britain from Jamaica. Rodgers and his squadron sailed in pursuit, and on 23 June they encountered what was later learned to be .Cooper (1856), pp. 244–245. ''President'' pursued the ship, and in what is recorded as the first shot of the War of 1812, Rodgers himself aimed and fired a bowchaser at ''Belvidera'', striking her rudder and penetrating the gun room.Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, p. 323.Roosevelt (1883), p. 74. Upon ''President''s fourth shot at ''Belvidera'', a cannon one deck below Rodgers burst, killing or wounding 16 sailors and throwing Rodgers to the deck with enough force to break his leg.Roosevelt (1883), p. 75.Cooper (1856), pp. 246–247.

The ensuing confusion allowed ''Belvidera'' to fire her stern chasers, killing six more men aboard ''President''. Rodgers kept up the pursuit, using his bow chasers to severely damage ''Belvidera''s rigging, but his two broadsides had little effect. The crew of ''Belvidera'' quickly made repairs to the rigging. They cut loose her anchors and boats and pumped drinking water overboard to lighten her load, thereby increasing her speed. ''Belvidera'' soon gained enough speed to distance herself from ''President'', and Rodgers abandoned the pursuit. ''Belvidera'' sailed to Halifax to deliver the news that war had been declared.Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, pp. 324–325.Roosevelt (1883), p. 76.

''President'' and her squadron returned to the pursuit of the Jamaican fleet, and on 1 July began to follow the trail of coconut shells and orange peels the Jamaicans had left behind them.Roosevelt (1883), p. 77. ''President'' sailed to within one day's journey of the English Channel, but never sighted the convoy. Rodgers called off the pursuit on 13 July. During their return trip to Boston, Rodgers' squadron captured seven merchant ships and recaptured one American vessel.Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, pp. 325–326.

After some refitting, ''President'', still under Rodgers' command, sailed on 8 October with ''Congress'', ''United States'', and ''Argus''. On 12 October, ''United States'' and ''Argus'' parted from the squadron for their own patrols.Roosevelt (1883), p. 106. On 10 October, ''President'' chased , but failed to overtake her. On 17 October ''President'' captured the British packet ship ''Swallow'', which carried a large amount of currency on board.Cooper (1856), p. 262.Roosevelt (1883), p. 107. On 31 October, ''President'' and ''Congress'' began pursuit of , which was escorting two merchant ships. The chase lasted about three hours, and in that time ''Congress'' captured the merchant ship ''Argo''. Meanwhile, ''President'' kept after ''Galatea'' and drew very close, but lost sight of her in the night. ''Congress'' and ''President'' remained together, but did not find any ships to capture during November. Returning to the United States, they passed north of Bermuda and proceeded toward the Virginia capes; they arrived in Boston on 31 December, having taken nine prizes. ''President'' and ''Congress'' found themselves blockaded there by the Royal Navy until April 1813.Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, pp. 426–427.

On 30 April, ''President'' and ''Congress'' sailed through the blockade on their third cruise of the war. On 2 May, they pursued , but she outran them and escaped.Roosevelt (1883), p. 174. ''President'' parted company with ''Congress'' on 8 May, and Rodgers set a course along the Gulf Stream to search for merchant ships to capture. By June, not having come across a single ship, ''President'' turned north; she put into North Bergen, Norway, on 27 June to replenish her drinking water.Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, pp. 521–522. Sailing soon after, ''President'' captured two British merchant ships, which helped to replenish her stores.Roosevelt (1883), p. 175. On 10 June ''President'' captured the outward-bound Falmouth packet ''Duke of Montrose'', Captain Aaron Groub Blewett, which managed to throw her mails overboard before ''President'' could send a prize crew aboard. ''President'' made a cartel of ''Duke of Montrose'', putting all of ''President''s prisoners on board and then sending her into Falmouth under the command of an American officer. When ''Duke of Montrose'' arrived at Falmouth the British Government abrogated the cartel on the grounds that they had advised the American Government that the British would not recognize agreements entered into on the high seas.

Around the same time, two Royal Navy ships came into view. ''President'' set all sails to escape, and outran them in a chase lasting 80 hours. Rodgers reported that his decision to flee the ships was based on identifying them as a ship of the line and a frigate. Royal Navy records later revealed that the vessels were actually the 32-gun frigate and the 16-gun fireship .Roosevelt (1883), pp. 175–176.

Spending a few days near the Irish Channel, ''President'' captured several more merchant ships. She then set a course for the United States. In late September, she encountered along the east coast of the United States. Rodgers used his signal flags to trick ''Highflyer'' into believing that ''President'' was .Hepper (1994), p. 148. Lieut. George Hutchinson, ''Highflyer''s captain, came aboard ''President'' only to discover he had walked into a trap; ''President'' captured ''Highflyer'' without a shot being fired. ''President''s long cruise netted her 11 merchant ships, in addition to ''Highflyer''.Cooper (1856), p. 332.Roosevelt (1883), pp. 176–177.

On 4 December 1813, ''President'' sailed from Providence, Rhode Island. On the 25th, she encountered two frigates in the dark, one of which fired at her. Rodgers believed the ships to be British, but they were two French frigates, and .Roosevelt (1883), p. 217. Afterward, Rodgers headed toward Barbados for an eight-week cruise in the West Indies, reportedly making three small captures, among them the British merchant ships ''Wanderer'', which she captured on 4 January 1814 in the Atlantic Ocean at approximately and sank, and ''Edward'', which she captured and sank on 9 January. Returning to New York City on 18 February 1814, ''President'' encountered HMS ''Loire'', which turned to escape once the latter's crew realized ''President'' was a 44-gun frigate.Roosevelt (1883), p. 286.Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, p. 541. ''President'' remained in New York for the duration of 1814 due to the harbor's blockade by a British squadron consisting of , , ''Pomone'', and ''Tenedos''.Roosevelt (1883), p. 401.

Capture

Stephen Decatur assumed command of ''President'' in December 1814, planning a cruise to the West Indies to prey on British shipping. In mid-January 1815, a snowy gale

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