The Treaty of Versailles
Versailles (French: Traité de Versailles) was the most important of the peace treaties that brought World War I
World War I to an end. The Treaty ended the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers. It was signed on 28 June 1919 in Versailles, exactly five years after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand which directly lead to World War I. The other Central Powers
Central Powers on the German side of World War I
World War I signed separate treaties.[8] Although the armistice, signed on 11 November 1918, ended the actual fighting, it took six months of Allied negotiations at the Paris Peace Conference to conclude the peace treaty. The treaty was registered by the Secretariat of the League of Nations
League of Nations on 21 October 1919. Of the many provisions in the treaty, one of the most important and controversial required "Germany [to] accept the responsibility of Germany and her allies for causing all the loss and damage" during the war (the other members of the Central Powers
Central Powers signed treaties containing similar articles). This article, Article 231, later became known as the War Guilt clause. The treaty forced Germany to disarm, make substantial territorial concessions, and pay reparations to certain countries that had formed the Entente powers. In 1921 the total cost of these reparations was assessed at 132 billion marks (then $31.4 billion or £6.6 billion, roughly equivalent to US $442 billion or UK £284 billion in 2018). At the time economists, notably John Maynard Keynes
John Maynard Keynes (a British delegate to the Paris Peace Conference), predicted that the treaty was too harsh—a "Carthaginian peace"—and said the reparations figure was excessive and counter-productive, views that, since then, have been the subject of ongoing debate by historians and economists from several countries. On the other hand, prominent figures on the Allied side such as French Marshal Ferdinand Foch
Ferdinand Foch criticized the treaty for treating Germany too leniently. The result of these competing and sometimes conflicting goals among the victors was a compromise that left no one content: Germany was neither pacified nor conciliated, nor was it permanently weakened. The problems that arose from the treaty would lead to the Locarno Treaties, which improved relations between Germany and the other European powers, and the re-negotiation of the reparation system resulting in the Dawes Plan, the Young Plan, and the indefinite postponement of reparations at the Lausanne Conference of 1932. Although it is often referred to as the " Versailles
Versailles Conference", only the actual signing of the treaty took place at the historic palace. Most of the negotiations were in Paris, with the "Big Four" meetings taking place generally at the Quai d'Orsay.

Contents

1 Background

1.1 World War I 1.2 Fourteen Points 1.3 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, 1918 1.4 Armistice 1.5 Occupation 1.6 Blockade 1.7 Polish uprising

2 Negotiations

2.1 French aims 2.2 British aims 2.3 American aims

3 Treaty

3.1 Territorial changes 3.2 Mandates 3.3 Military restrictions 3.4 Reparations 3.5 Guarantees 3.6 International organizations

4 Reactions

4.1 Among the allies

4.1.1 Britain 4.1.2 France 4.1.3 Italy 4.1.4 Portugal 4.1.5 United States 4.1.6 China

4.1.6.1 House's views

4.2 In Germany

5 Violations 6 Historical assessments 7 See also 8 Notes 9 Further reading 10 External links

Background World War I Main article: World War I

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The Signing of the Peace Treaty of Versailles

The First World War (1914–1918) was fought across Europe, the Middle East, Africa and Asia. Countries beyond the war zones were also affected by the disruption of international trade, finance and diplomatic pressures from the belligerents.[9] In 1917, two revolutions occurred within the Russian Empire, which led to the collapse of the Imperial Government and the rise of the Bolshevik Party led by Vladimir Lenin.[10] Fourteen Points Main article: Fourteen Points On 6 April 1917, the United States
United States entered the war against the Central Powers due to German submarine warfare against merchant ships trading with France
France and Britain, which led to the sinking of the RMS Lusitania and the loss of 128 American lives, as well as the interception of the Zimmerman Telegram, sent by the Empire of Germany to Mexico, urging for a declaration of war against the United States. The American war aim was to detach the war from nationalistic disputes and ambitions after the Bolshevik disclosure of secret treaties between the Allies. The existence of these treaties tended to discredit Allied claims that Germany was the sole power with aggressive ambitions.[11] On 8 January 1918, United States
United States President Woodrow Wilson
Woodrow Wilson issued a statement that became known as the Fourteen Points. This speech outlined a policy of free trade, open agreements, democracy and self-determination. It also called for a diplomatic end to the war, international disarmament, the withdrawal of the Central Powers
Central Powers from occupied territories, the creation of a Polish state, the redrawing of Europe's borders along ethnic lines, and the formation of a League of Nations to afford "mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike".[12][13] Wilson's speech also responded to Vladimir Lenin's Decree on Peace
Decree on Peace of November 1917, which proposed an immediate withdrawal of Russia from the war and called for a just and democratic peace uncompromised by territorial annexations. The Fourteen Points
Fourteen Points were based on the research of the Inquiry, a team of about 150 advisors led by foreign-policy advisor Edward M. House, into the topics likely to arise in the anticipated peace conference. Europeans generally welcomed Wilson's intervention, but Allied colleagues Georges Clemenceau of France, David Lloyd George
David Lloyd George of the United Kingdom
United Kingdom and Vittorio Emanuele Orlando
Vittorio Emanuele Orlando of Italy were sceptical of Wilsonian idealism.[14] Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, 1918 Main article: Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

The borders of Eastern Europe, as drawn up in Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

After the Central Powers
Central Powers launched Operation Faustschlag
Operation Faustschlag on the Eastern Front, the new Soviet Government of Russia signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany on 3 March 1918.[15] This treaty ended the war between Russia and the Central powers and annexed 1,300,000 square miles (3,400,000 km2) of territory and 62 million people.[16] This loss equated to a third of the Russian population, a quarter of its territory, around a third of the country's arable land, three-quarters of its coal and iron, a third of its factories (totalling 54 percent of the nation's industrial capacity), and a quarter of its railroads.[16][17] Armistice Main article: Armistice with Germany During the autumn of 1918, the Central Powers
Central Powers began to collapse.[18] Desertion rates within the German army began to increase, and civilian strikes drastically reduced war production.[19][20] On the Western Front, the Allied forces launched the Hundred Days Offensive
Hundred Days Offensive and decisively defeated the German western armies.[21] Sailors of the Imperial German Navy
Imperial German Navy at Kiel mutinied, which prompted uprisings in Germany, which became known as the German Revolution.[22][23] The German government tried to obtain a peace settlement based on the Fourteen Points, and maintained it was on this basis that they surrendered. Following negotiations, the Allied powers and Germany signed an armistice, which came into effect on 11 November while German forces were still positioned in France
France and Belgium.[24][25][26] Occupation Main article: Occupation of the Rhineland The terms of the armistice called for an immediate evacuation of German troops from occupied Belgium, France, and Luxembourg within fifteen days.[27] In addition, it established that Allied forces would occupy the Rhineland. In late 1918, Allied troops entered Germany and began the occupation.[28] Blockade Main article: Blockade of Germany Both the German Empire
German Empire and Great Britain were dependent on imports of food and raw materials, primarily from the Americas, which had to be shipped across the Atlantic Ocean. The Blockade of Germany (1914–1919) was a naval operation conducted by the Allied Powers to stop the supply of raw materials and foodstuffs reaching the Central Powers. The German Kaiserliche Marine
Kaiserliche Marine was mainly restricted to the German Bight
German Bight and used commerce raiders and unrestricted submarine warfare for a counter-blockade. The German Board of Public Health in December 1918 stated that 763,000 German civilians had died during the Allied blockade, although an academic study in 1928 put the death toll at 424,000 people.[29] Polish uprising Main article: Greater Poland
Poland Uprising (1918–19) In late 1918, a Polish government was formed and an independent Poland proclaimed. In December, Poles
Poles launched an uprising within the German province of Posen. Fighting lasted until February, when an armistice was signed that left the province in Polish hands, but technically still a German possession.[30] Negotiations

The heads of the "Big Four" nations at the Paris Peace Conference, 27 May 1919. From left to right: David Lloyd George, Vittorio Orlando, Georges Clemenceau, and Woodrow Wilson

Negotiations between the Allied powers started on 18 January in the Salle de l'Horloge at the French Foreign Ministry on the Quai d'Orsay in Paris. Initially, 70 delegates from 27 nations participated in the negotiations.[31] The defeated nations of Germany, Austria, and Hungary
Hungary were excluded from the negotiations. Russia was also excluded because it had negotiated a separate peace (the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk) with Germany in 1918. The terms of this treaty awarded Germany a large proportion of Russia's land and resources. Its terms were extremely harsh, as the negotiators at Versailles
Versailles later pointed out. At first a "Council of Ten" comprising two delegates each from Britain, France, the United States, Italy and Japan met officially to decide the peace terms. It became the "Big Four" when Japan dropped out and the top person from each of the other four nations met in 145 closed sessions to make all the major decisions to be ratified by the entire assembly. Apart from Italian issues, the main conditions were determined at personal meetings among the leaders of the "Big Three" nations: British Prime Minister David Lloyd George, French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau, and American President Woodrow Wilson. The minor nations attended a weekly "Plenary Conference" that discussed issues in a general forum, but made no decisions. These members formed over 50 commissions that made various recommendations, many of which were incorporated into the final treaty.[32][33] French aims As the only major allied power sharing a land border with Germany, France
France was chiefly concerned with weakening Germany as much as possible. The French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau
Georges Clemenceau described France's position best by telling Wilson: "America is far away, protected by the ocean. Not even Napoleon himself could touch England. You are both sheltered; we are not." [34] Clemenceau and his colleagues hoped at the very least to have Allied troops occupy bridges over the Rhine
Rhine and proposed a plan to create a buffer state in the Rhineland
Rhineland in order to create a barrier between a revitalized Germany and France. However, their demands would not be met by the treaty. Instead, France
France obtained the demilitarization of the Rhineland, a mandate over the Saar and promises of Anglo-American support in case of a new German aggression (a commitment that could not be relied on after the United States
United States failed to ratify the treaty).[35] Clemenceau's inability to procure the Rhineland
Rhineland state led to fierce criticism of him in France
France and contributed to his subsequent fall from power.[36] British economist John Maynard Keynes
John Maynard Keynes argued,

So far as possible, therefore, it was the policy of France
France to set the clock back and undo what, since 1870, the progress of Germany had accomplished. By loss of territory and other measures her population was to be curtailed; but chiefly the economic system, upon which she depended for her new strength, the vast fabric built upon iron, coal, and transport must be destroyed. If France
France could seize, even in part, what Germany was compelled to drop, the inequality of strength between the two rivals for European hegemony might be remedied for generations.[37]

France, which suffered significant destruction in its northern territories (the worst damage sustained in areas that formed a so-called Red Zone) and the second heaviest (after the Russian empire) human losses among allies (see main article World War I
World War I casualties), was adamant on the payment of reparations. The failure of the government of the Weimar Republic
Weimar Republic to pay these reparations led to the Occupation of the Ruhr
Occupation of the Ruhr by French and Belgian forces. British aims Further information: Heavenly Twins (Sumner and Cunliffe) Britain had suffered little land devastation during the war and Prime Minister David Lloyd George
David Lloyd George supported reparations to a lesser extent than the French. Britain began to look on a restored Germany as an important trading partner and worried about the effect of reparations on the British economy.[38] American aims Main article: Fourteen Points Before the end of the war, President Woodrow Wilson
Woodrow Wilson put forward his Fourteen Points, which represented the liberal position at the Conference and helped shape world opinion. Wilson was concerned with rebuilding the European economy, encouraging self-determination, promoting free trade, creating appropriate mandates for former colonies, and above all, creating a powerful League of Nations
League of Nations that would ensure the peace. He opposed harsh treatment of Germany but was outmanoeuvered by Britain and France. He brought along top intellectuals as advisors, but his refusal to include prominent Republicans in the American delegation made his efforts seem partisan, and it contributed to a risk of political defeat at home.[39] Treaty Further information: Full text of the treaty

German Johannes Bell
Johannes Bell signs the Treaty of Versailles
Versailles in the Hall of Mirrors, with various Allied delegations sitting and standing in front of him.

In June 1919, the Allies declared that war would resume if the German government did not sign the treaty they had agreed to among themselves. The government headed by Philipp Scheidemann
Philipp Scheidemann was unable to agree on a common position, and Scheidemann himself resigned rather than agree to sign the treaty. Gustav Bauer, the head of the new government, sent a telegram stating his intention to sign the treaty if certain articles were withdrawn, including Articles 227, 230 and 231.[nb 1] In response, the Allies issued an ultimatum stating that Germany would have to accept the treaty or face an invasion of Allied forces across the Rhine
Rhine within 24 hours. On 23 June, Bauer capitulated and sent a second telegram with a confirmation that a German delegation would arrive shortly to sign the treaty.[40] On 28 June 1919, the fifth anniversary of the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand (the immediate impetus for the war), the peace treaty was signed.[2] The treaty had clauses ranging from war crimes, the prohibition on the merging of Austria
Austria with Germany without the consent of the League of Nations, freedom of navigation on major European rivers, to the returning of a Koran to the king of Hedjaz.[41][42][43][44] Territorial changes

Germany after Versailles:   Administered by the League of Nations   Annexed or transferred to neighbouring countries by the treaty, or later via plebiscite and League of Nation action   Weimar Germany

The treaty stripped Germany of 25,000 square miles (65,000 km2) of territory and 7 million people. It also required Germany to give up the gains made via the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and grant independence to the protectorates that had been established.[17] In Western Europe Germany was required to recognize Belgian sovereignty over Moresnet and cede control of the Eupen-Malmedy
Eupen-Malmedy area. Within six months of the transfer, Belgium
Belgium was required to conduct a plebiscite on whether the citizens of the region wanted to remain under Belgian sovereignty or return to German control, communicate the results to the League of Nations and abide by the League's decision.[45] To compensate for the destruction of French coal mines, Germany was to cede the output of the Saar coalmines to France
France and control of the Saar to the League of Nations for 15 years; a plebiscite would then be held to decide sovereignty.[46] The treaty "restored" the provinces of Alsace-Lorraine
Alsace-Lorraine to France
France by rescinding the treaties of Versailles
Versailles and Frankfurt of 1871 as they pertained to this issue.[47] The sovereignty of Schleswig-Holstein
Schleswig-Holstein was to be resolved by a plebiscite to be held at a future time (see Schleswig Plebiscites).[48] In Eastern Europe, Germany was to recognize the independence of Czechoslovakia
Czechoslovakia and cede parts of the province of Upper Silesia.[49] Germany had to recognize the independence of Poland
Poland and renounce "all rights and title over the territory". Portions of Upper Silesia
Upper Silesia were to be ceded to Poland, with the future of the rest of the province to be decided by plebiscite. The border would be fixed with regard to the vote and to the geographical and economic conditions of each locality.[50] The province of Posen (now Poznan), which had come under Polish control during the Greater Poland
Poland Uprising, was also to be ceded to Poland.[30][51] Pomerelia
Pomerelia (Eastern Pomerania), on historical and ethnic grounds, was transferred to Poland
Poland so that the new state could have access to the sea and became known as the Polish Corridor.[52] The sovereignty of part of southern East Prussia
East Prussia was to be decided via plebiscite while the East Prussian Soldau area, which was astride the rail line between Warsaw and Danzig, was transferred to Poland
Poland outright without plebiscite.[53][54] An area of 51,800 square kilometres (20,000 square miles) was granted to Poland
Poland at the expense of Germany.[55] Memel was to be ceded to the Allied and Associated powers, for disposal according to their wishes.[56] Germany was to cede the city of Danzig and its hinterland, including the delta of the Vistula River
Vistula River on the Baltic Sea, for the League of Nations
League of Nations to establish the Free City of Danzig.[57] Mandates Main article: League of Nations
League of Nations mandate

German colonies (light blue) made into League of Nations
League of Nations mandates.

Article 119 of the treaty required Germany to renounce sovereignty over former colonies and Article 22 converted the territories into League of Nations
League of Nations mandates under the control of Allied states.[58] Togoland
Togoland and German Kamerun
German Kamerun (Cameroon) were transferred to France. Ruanda and Urundi were allocated to Belgium, whereas German South-West Africa went to South Africa and the United Kingdom
United Kingdom obtained German East Africa.[59][60][61] As compensation for the German invasion of Portuguese Africa, Portugal
Portugal was granted the Kionga Triangle, a sliver of German East Africa
German East Africa in northern Mozambique.[62] Article 156 of the treaty transferred German concessions in Shandong, China, to Japan, not to China. Japan was granted all German possessions in the Pacific north of the equator and those south of the equator went to Australia, except for German Samoa, which was taken by New Zealand.[60][63] Military restrictions The treaty was comprehensive and complex in the restrictions imposed upon the post-war German armed forces (the Reichswehr). The provisions were intended to make the Reichswehr
Reichswehr incapable of offensive action and to encourage international disarmament.[64][65] Germany was to demobilize sufficient soldiers by 31 March 1920 to leave an army of no more than 100,000 men in a maximum of seven infantry and three cavalry divisions. The treaty laid down the organisation of the divisions and support units, and the General Staff was to be dissolved.[66] Military schools for officer training were limited to three, one school per arm, and conscription was abolished. Private soldiers and Non-commissioned officers
Non-commissioned officers were to be retained for at least twelve years and officers for a minimum of 25 years, with former officers being forbidden to attend military exercises. To prevent Germany from building up a large cadre of trained men, the number of men allowed to leave early was limited.[67]

Workmen decommission a heavy gun, to comply with the treaty.

The number of civilian staff supporting the army was reduced and the police force was reduced to its pre-war size, with increases limited to population increases; paramilitary forces were forbidden.[68] The Rhineland
Rhineland was to be demilitarized, all fortifications in the Rhineland and 50 kilometres (31 miles) east of the river were to be demolished and new construction was forbidden.[69] Military structures and fortifications on the islands of Heligoland
Heligoland and Düne
Düne were to be destroyed.[70] Germany was prohibited from the arms trade, limits were imposed on the type and quantity of weapons and prohibited from the manufacture or stockpile of chemical weapons, armoured cars, tanks and military aircraft.[71] The German navy was allowed six pre-dreadnought battleships and was limited to a maximum of six light cruisers (not exceeding 6,000 long tons (6,100 t)), twelve destroyers (not exceeding 800 long tons (810 t)) and twelve torpedo boats (not exceeding 200 long tons (200 t)) and was forbidden submarines.[72] The manpower of the navy was not to exceed 15,000 men, including manning for the fleet, coast defences, signal stations, administration, other land services, officers and men of all grades and corps. The number of officers and warrant officers was not allowed to exceed 1,500 men.[73] Germany surrendered eight battleships, eight light cruisers, forty-two destroyers, and fifty torpedo boats for decommissioning. Thirty-two auxiliary ships were to be disarmed and converted to merchant use.[74] Article 198 prohibited Germany from having an air force, including naval air forces, and required Germany to hand over all aerial related materials. In conjunction, Germany was forbidden to manufacture or import aircraft or related material for a period of six months following the signing of the treaty.[75] Reparations Main article: World War I
World War I reparations In Article 231 Germany accepted responsibility for the losses and damages caused by the war "as a consequence of the ... aggression of Germany and her allies."[76][nb 2] The treaty required Germany to compensate the Allied powers, and it also established an Allied "Reparation Commission" to determine the exact amount which Germany would pay and the form that such payment would take. The commission was required to "give to the German Government a just opportunity to be heard", and to submit its conclusions by 1 May 1921. In the interim, the treaty required Germany to pay an equivalent of 20 billion gold marks ($5 billion) in gold, commodities, ships, securities or other forms. The money would help to pay for Allied occupation costs and buy food and raw materials for Germany.[81][82] Guarantees

Location of the Rhineland

To ensure compliance, the Rhineland
Rhineland and bridgeheads east of the Rhine were to be occupied by Allied troops for fifteen years.[83] If Germany had not committed aggression, a staged withdrawal would take place; after five years, the Cologne
Cologne bridgehead and the territory north of a line along the Ruhr would be evacuated. After ten years, the bridgehead at Coblenz
Coblenz and the territories to the north would be evacuated and after fifteen years remaining Allied forces would be withdrawn.[84] If Germany reneged on the treaty obligations, the bridgeheads would be reoccupied immediately.[85] International organizations Main articles: Covenant of the League of Nations
League of Nations and International Labour Organization § History Part I of the treaty, as per all the treaties signed during the Paris Peace Conference,[nb 3] was the Covenant of the League of Nations, which provided for the creation of the League, an organization for the arbitration of international disputes.[86] Part XIII organized the establishment of the International Labour Officer, to regulate hours of work, including a maximum working day and week; the regulation of the labour supply; the prevention of unemployment; the provision of a living wage; the protection of the worker against sickness, disease and injury arising out of his employment; the protection of children, young persons and women; provision for old age and injury; protection of the interests of workers when employed abroad; recognition of the principle of freedom of association; the organization of vocational and technical education and other measures.[87] The treaty also called for the signatories to sign or ratify the International Opium Convention.[88] Reactions Among the allies Britain The surrender of the German High Seas Fleet
High Seas Fleet following the Armistice and its internment (and eventual scuttling) in Scapa Flow
Scapa Flow meant that Britain had already accomplished her primary war goal even before the Paris Peace Conference opened. With the German naval threat removed, Britain began focusing on Germany as a bulwark against the threat posed by the new Soviet Union. Thus, British policy towards Germany began diverging from France's almost from the moment the guns fell silent. British officials at the conference declared French policy to be "greedy" and "vindictive," with Ramsay MacDonald
Ramsay MacDonald later announcing, after Hitler's re-militarisation of the Rhineland
Rhineland in 1936, that he was "pleased" that the treaty was "vanishing", expressing his hope that the French had been taught a "severe lesson".[89] In 1938, Lloyd George published a massive two-volume memoir titled The Truth About the Peace Treaties, in which he effectively repudiated the terms of the treaty that bore his signature.[90] France France
France signed the treaty and was active in the League. The French people rejoiced that Alsace
Alsace and Lorraine
Lorraine had been returned to France and that Germany had agreed to pay reparations. But the perception that Clemenceau had failed to achieve all of France's demands damaged him politically. When he stood for election as President of France
France in January 1920, he was defeated. Through much of the 1920s, France
France was the most vigorous of the wartime Allies in seeking to enforce the treaty's harsher terms, especially with regard to reparations. Without strong British support, however, she was largely unsuccessful. French Marshal Ferdinand Foch—who felt the restrictions on Germany were too lenient—prophetically predicted that "this (treaty) is not peace. It is an Armistice for twenty years."[91] Italy Reaction in Italy to the treaty was extremely negative. The country had suffered high casualties, yet failed to achieve most of its major war goals, notably gaining control of the Dalmatian coast
Dalmatian coast and Fiume. President Wilson rejected Italy's claims on the basis of "national self-determination." For their part, Britain and France—who had been forced in the war's latter stages to divert their own troops to the Italian front to stave off collapse—were disinclined to support Italy's position at the peace conference. Differences in negotiating strategy between Premier Vittorio Orlando
Vittorio Orlando and Foreign Minister Sidney Sonnino further undermined Italy's position at the conference. A furious Vittorio Orlando
Vittorio Orlando suffered a nervous collapse and at one point walked out of the conference (though he later returned). He lost his position as prime minister just a week before the treaty was scheduled to be signed, effectively ending his active political career. Anger and dismay over the treaty's provisions helped pave the way for the establishment of Benito Mussolini's dictatorship three years later. Portugal Portugal
Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in 1916 primarily to ensure the security of its African colonies, which were threatened with seizure by both Britain and Germany. To this extent, she succeeded in her war aims. The treaty recognized Portuguese sovereignty over these areas and awarded her small portions of Germany's bordering overseas colonies. Otherwise, however, Portugal obtained little at the peace conference. Her promised share of German reparations never materialized, and a seat she coveted on the executive council of the new League of Nations
League of Nations went instead to Spain—which had remained neutral in the war. In the end, Portugal ratified the treaty, but got little out of the war, which cost more than 8,000 Portuguese troops and as many as 100,000 of her African colonial subjects their lives.[92] United States

Senator Borah, Lodge and Johnson refuse Lady Peace a seat. Refers to efforts by Republican isolationists to block ratification of Treaty of Versailles
Versailles establishing the League of Nations.

After the Versailles
Versailles conference, Democratic President Woodrow Wilson claimed that "at last the world knows America as the savior of the world!"[93] However, the Republican Party, led by Henry Cabot Lodge, controlled the US Senate after the election of 1918, and the senators were divided into multiple positions on the Versailles
Versailles question. It proved possible to build a majority coalition, but impossible to build a two-thirds coalition that was needed to pass a treaty.[94] A discontent bloc of 12–18 "Irreconcilables", mostly Republicans but also representatives of the Irish and German Democrats, fiercely opposed the treaty. One block of Democrats strongly supported the Versailles
Versailles Treaty, even with reservations added by Lodge. A second group of Democrats supported the treaty but followed Wilson in opposing any amendments or reservations. The largest bloc, led by Senator Lodge,[95] comprised a majority of the Republicans. They wanted a treaty with reservations, especially on Article 10, which involved the power of the League of Nations
League of Nations to make war without a vote by the US Congress.[96] All of the Irreconcilables
Irreconcilables were bitter enemies of President Wilson, and he launched a nationwide speaking tour in the summer of 1919 to refute them. However, Wilson collapsed midway with a serious stroke that effectively ruined his leadership skills.[97] The closest the treaty came to passage was on 19 November 1919, as Lodge and his Republicans formed a coalition with the pro-Treaty Democrats, and were close to a two-thirds majority for a Treaty with reservations, but Wilson rejected this compromise and enough Democrats followed his lead to permanently end the chances for ratification. Among the American public as a whole, the Irish Catholics and the German Americans were intensely opposed to the treaty, saying it favored the British.[98] After Wilson's presidency, his successor Republican President Warren G. Harding continued American opposition to the formation of the League of Nations. Congress subsequently passed the Knox–Porter Resolution bringing a formal end to hostilities between the United States and the Central Powers. It was signed into law by President Harding on 2 July 1921.[99][100] Soon after, the US–German Peace Treaty of 1921 was signed in Berlin on 25 August 1921, the US–Austrian Peace Treaty of 1921 was signed in Vienna on 24 August 1921, and the US–Hungarian Peace Treaty of 1921 was signed in Budapest on 29 August 1921. China China felt betrayed as the German territory in China was handed to Japan. The sense of betrayal led to great demonstrations in China and the fall of the nascent Chinese Republic's government and poisoned relations with the West. [101][102] House's views Wilson's former friend Edward Mandell House, present at the negotiations, wrote in his diary on 29 June 1919:

I am leaving Paris, after eight fateful months, with conflicting emotions. Looking at the conference in retrospect, there is much to approve and yet much to regret. It is easy to say what should have been done, but more difficult to have found a way of doing it. To those who are saying that the treaty is bad and should never have been made and that it will involve Europe in infinite difficulties in its enforcement, I feel like admitting it. But I would also say in reply that empires cannot be shattered, and new states raised upon their ruins without disturbance. To create new boundaries is to create new troubles. The one follows the other. While I should have preferred a different peace, I doubt very much whether it could have been made, for the ingredients required for such a peace as I would have were lacking at Paris.[103]

In Germany See also: Stab-in-the-back legend

German delegates in Versailles: Professor Walther Schücking, Reichspostminister Johannes Giesberts, Justice Minister Otto Landsberg, Foreign Minister Ulrich Graf von Brockdorff-Rantzau, Prussian State President Robert Leinert, and financial advisor Carl Melchior.

On 29 April, the German delegation under the leadership of the Foreign Minister Ulrich Graf von Brockdorff-Rantzau
Ulrich Graf von Brockdorff-Rantzau arrived in Versailles. On 7 May, when faced with the conditions dictated by the victors, including the so-called "War Guilt Clause", von Brockdorff-Rantzau replied to Clemenceau, Wilson and Lloyd George: "We know the full brunt of hate that confronts us here. You demand from us to confess we were the only guilty party of war; such a confession in my mouth would be a lie."[104] Because Germany was not allowed to take part in the negotiations, the German government issued a protest against what it considered to be unfair demands, and a "violation of honour",[105] soon afterwards withdrawing from the proceedings of the peace conference. Germans of all political shades denounced the treaty—particularly the provision that blamed Germany for starting the war—as an insult to the nation's honor. They referred to the treaty as "the Diktat" since its terms were presented to Germany on a take-it-or-leave-it basis. Germany′s first democratically elected head of government, Philipp Scheidemann, resigned rather than sign the treaty. In a passionate speech before the National Assembly on 21 March 1919, he called the treaty a "murderous plan" and exclaimed,

Which hand, trying to put us in chains like these, would not wither? The treaty is unacceptable.[106]

After Scheidemann′s resignation, a new coalition government was formed under Gustav Bauer. President Friedrich Ebert
Friedrich Ebert knew that Germany was in an impossible situation. Although he shared his countrymen's disgust with the treaty, he was sober enough to consider the possibility that the government would not be in a position to reject it. He believed that if Germany refused to sign the treaty, the Allies would invade Germany from the west—and there was no guarantee that the army would be able to make a stand in the event of an invasion. With this in mind, he asked Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg
Paul von Hindenburg if the army was capable of any meaningful resistance in the event the Allies resumed the war. If there was even the slightest chance that the army could hold out, Ebert intended to recommend against ratifying the treaty. Hindenburg—after prodding from his chief of staff, Wilhelm Groener—concluded the army could not resume the war even on a limited scale. However, rather than inform Ebert himself, he had Groener inform the government that the army would be in an untenable position in the event of renewed hostilities. Upon receiving this, the new government recommended signing the treaty. The National Assembly voted in favour of signing the treaty by 237 to 138, with five abstentions (there were 421 delegates in total). This result was wired to Clemenceau just hours before the deadline. Foreign minister Hermann Müller and colonial minister Johannes Bell
Johannes Bell travelled to Versailles
Versailles to sign the treaty on behalf of Germany. The treaty was signed on 28 June 1919 and ratified by the National Assembly on 9 July by a vote of 209 to 116.[107]

Demonstration against the treaty in front of the Reichstag.

Conservatives, nationalists and ex-military leaders condemned the treaty. Politicians of the Weimar Republic
Weimar Republic who supported the treaty, socialists, communists, and Jews
Jews were viewed with suspicion as persons of questionable loyalty.[citation needed] It was rumored that Jews
Jews had not supported the war and had played a role in selling Germany out to its enemies. Those who seemed to benefit from a weakened Germany and the newly formed Weimar Republic
Weimar Republic were regarded as having "stabbed Germany in the back". Those who instigated unrest and strikes in the critical military industries on the home front or who opposed German nationalism were seen to have contributed to Germany's defeat.[citation needed] These theories were given credence by the fact that when Germany surrendered in November 1918, its armies were still on French and Belgian territory. Furthermore, on the Eastern Front, Germany had already won the war against Russia and concluded the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. In the West, Germany had seemed to have come close to winning the war with the Spring Offensive
Spring Offensive earlier in 1918.[citation needed] Its failure was blamed on strikes in the arms industry at a critical moment of the offensive, leaving soldiers with an inadequate supply of materiel. The strikes were regarded by nationalists as having been instigated by traitors, with the Jews taking most of the blame.[citation needed] Violations

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Hitler announces the Anschluss
Anschluss of Austria
Austria in violation of Art. 80 on the Heldenplatz, Vienna, 15 March 1938.

The German economy was so weak that only a small percentage of reparations was paid in hard currency.[citation needed] Nonetheless, even the payment of this small percentage of the original reparations (132 billion gold marks) still placed a significant burden on the German economy.[citation needed] Although the causes of the devastating post-war hyperinflation are complex and disputed, Germans blamed the near-collapse of their economy on the treaty, and some economists estimated that the reparations accounted for as much as one-third of the hyper-inflation.[citation needed] In March 1921, French and Belgian troops occupied Duisburg, which formed part of the demilitarized Rhineland, according to the Treaty of Versailles.[citation needed] In January 1923, French and Belgian forces occupied the rest of the Ruhr area as a reprisal after Germany failed to fulfill reparation payments demanded by the Versailles Treaty. The German government answered with "passive resistance", which meant that coal miners and railway workers refused to obey any instructions by the occupation forces.[citation needed] Production and transportation came to a standstill, but the financial consequences contributed to German hyperinflation and completely ruined public finances in Germany. Consequently, passive resistance was called off in late 1923.[citation needed] The end of passive resistance in the Ruhr allowed Germany to undertake a currency reform and to negotiate the Dawes Plan, which led to the withdrawal of French and Belgian troops from the Ruhr Area in 1925.[citation needed] Some significant violations of the provisions of the treaty were:

At the time of signing in 1919, the dissolution of the General Staff according to Article 160 appeared to happen; however, the core of the General Staff was reestablished and hidden in the Truppenamt.[108][109] March 1935, under the government of Adolf Hitler, Germany violated the Part V of the Treaty of Versailles
Versailles by introducing compulsory military conscription in Germany and rebuilding the armed forces.[110][111] March 1936, Germany violated Article 43 of the treaty by reoccupying the demilitarized zone in the Rhineland.[69][112] March 1938, Germany violated Article 80 of the treaty by annexing Austria
Austria in the Anschluss.[113][114]

Historical assessments

John Maynard Keynes, the principal representative of the British Treasury, referred to the Treaty of Versailles
Versailles as a "Carthaginian peace".

According to David Stevenson, since the opening of French archives, most commentators have remarked on French restraint and reasonableness at the conference, though Stevenson notes that "[t]he jury is still out", and that "there have been signs that the pendulum of judgement is swinging back the other way."[115] In his book The Economic Consequences of the Peace, John Maynard Keynes referred to the Treaty of Versailles
Versailles as a "Carthaginian peace", a misguided attempt to destroy Germany on behalf of French revanchism, rather than to follow the fairer principles for a lasting peace set out in President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points, which Germany had accepted at the armistice. He stated: "I believe that the campaign for securing out of Germany the general costs of the war was one of the most serious acts of political unwisdom for which our statesmen have ever been responsible."[116] Keynes had been the principal representative of the British Treasury at the Paris Peace Conference, and used in his passionate book arguments that he and others (including some US officials) had used at Paris.[117] He believed the sums being asked of Germany in reparations were many times more than it was possible for Germany to pay, and that these would produce drastic instability.[118] French economist Étienne Mantoux disputed that analysis. During the 1940s, Mantoux wrote a posthumously published book titled The Carthaginian Peace, or the Economic Consequences of Mr. Keynes in an attempt to rebut Keynes' claims. More recently economists have argued that the restriction of Germany to a small army saved it so much money it could afford the reparations payments.[119] It has been argued (for instance by historian Gerhard Weinberg
Gerhard Weinberg in his book A World At Arms[120]) that the treaty was in fact quite advantageous to Germany. The Bismarckian Reich was maintained as a political unit instead of being broken up, and Germany largely escaped post-war military occupation (in contrast to the situation following World War II). In a 1995 essay, Weinberg noted that with the disappearance of Austria- Hungary
Hungary and with Russia withdrawn from Europe, that Germany was now the dominant power in Eastern Europe.[121] The British military historian Correlli Barnett claimed that the Treaty of Versailles
Versailles was "extremely lenient in comparison with the peace terms that Germany herself, when she was expecting to win the war, had had in mind to impose on the Allies". Furthermore, he claimed, it was "hardly a slap on the wrist" when contrasted with the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk that Germany had imposed on a defeated Russia in March 1918, which had taken away a third of Russia's population (albeit of non-Russian ethnicity), one-half of Russia's industrial undertakings and nine-tenths of Russia's coal mines, coupled with an indemnity of six billion marks.[122] Eventually, even under the "cruel" terms of the Treaty of Versailles, Germany′s economy had been restored to its pre-war status. Barnett also claims that, in strategic terms, Germany was in fact in a superior position following the Treaty than she had been in 1914. Germany′s eastern frontiers faced Russia and Austria, who had both in the past balanced German power. Barnett asserts that its post-war eastern borders were safer, because the former Austrian Empire fractured after the war into smaller, weaker states, Russia was wracked by revolution and civil war, and the newly restored Poland
Poland was no match for even a defeated Germany. In the West, Germany was balanced only by France
France and Belgium, both of which were smaller in population and less economically vibrant than Germany. Barnett concludes by saying that instead of weakening Germany, the treaty "much enhanced" German power.[123] Britain and France
France should have (according to Barnett) "divided and permanently weakened" Germany by undoing Bismarck's work and partitioning Germany into smaller, weaker states so it could never have disrupted the peace of Europe again.[124] By failing to do this and therefore not solving the problem of German power and restoring the equilibrium of Europe, Britain "had failed in her main purpose in taking part in the Great War".[125]

American contemporary view of German World War I
World War I reparations. Political cartoon 1921.

The British historian of modern Germany, Richard J. Evans, wrote that during the war the German right was committed to an annexationist program which aimed at Germany annexing most of Europe and Africa. Consequently, any peace treaty that did not leave Germany as the conqueror would be unacceptable to them.[126] Short of allowing Germany to keep all the conquests of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, Evans argued that there was nothing that could have been done to persuade the German right to accept Versailles.[126] Evans further noted that the parties of the Weimar Coalition, namely the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), the social liberal German Democratic Party (DDP) and the Christian democratic Centre Party, were all equally opposed to Versailles, and it is false to claim as some historians have that opposition to Versailles
Versailles also equalled opposition to the Weimar Republic.[126] Finally, Evans argued that it is untrue that Versailles
Versailles caused the premature end of the Republic, instead contending that it was the Great Depression
Great Depression of the early 1930s that put an end to German democracy. He also argued that Versailles
Versailles was not the "main cause" of National Socialism and the German economy was "only marginally influenced by the impact of reparations".[126] Ewa Thompson points out that the treaty allowed numerous nations in Central and Eastern Europe
Eastern Europe to liberate themselves from oppressive German rule, a fact that is often neglected by Western historiography, more interested in understanding the German point of view. In nations that found themselves free as the result of the treaty—such as Poles or Czechs—it is seen as a symbol of recognition of wrongs committed against small nations by their much larger aggressive neighbours.[127] Regardless of modern strategic or economic analysis, resentment caused by the treaty sowed fertile psychological ground for the eventual rise of the Nazi Party.[citation needed] The German historian Detlev Peukert wrote that Versailles
Versailles was far from the impossible peace that most Germans claimed it was during the interwar period, and though not without flaws was actually quite reasonable to Germany.[128] Rather, Peukert argued that it was widely believed in Germany that Versailles was a totally unreasonable treaty, and it was this "perception" rather than the "reality" of the Versailles
Versailles treaty that mattered.[128] Peukert noted that because of the "millenarian hopes" created in Germany during World War I
World War I when for a time it appeared that Germany was on the verge of conquering all of Europe, any peace treaty the Allies of World War I
World War I imposed on the defeated German Reich
German Reich were bound to create a nationalist backlash, and there was nothing the Allies could have done to avoid that backlash.[128] Having noted that much, Peukert commented that the policy of rapprochement with the Western powers that Gustav Stresemann
Gustav Stresemann carried out between 1923 and 1929 were constructive policies that might have allowed Germany to play a more positive role in Europe, and that it was not true that German democracy was doomed to die in 1919 because of Versailles.[128] Finally, Peukert argued that it was the Great Depression
Great Depression and the turn to a nationalist policy of autarky within Germany at the same time that finished off the Weimar Republic, not the Treaty of Versailles.[128] French historian Raymond Cartier states that millions of Germans in the Sudetenland
Sudetenland and in Posen-West Prussia
Posen-West Prussia were placed under foreign rule in a hostile environment, where harassment and violation of rights by authorities are documented.[129] Cartier asserts that, out of 1,058,000 Germans in Posen-West Prussia
Posen-West Prussia in 1921, 758,867 fled their homelands within five years due to Polish harassment.[129] In 1926, the Polish Ministry of the Interior estimated the remaining number of Germans at fewer than 300,000.[citation needed] These sharpening ethnic conflicts would lead to public demands to reattach the annexed territory in 1938 and become a pretext for Hitler′s annexations of Czechoslovakia
Czechoslovakia and parts of Poland.[129] See also

United Nations portal World War I
World War I portal

Aftermath of World War I Causes of World War II Decree on Peace International Opium Convention, incorporated into the Treaty of Versailles Little Treaty of Versailles Minority Treaties Neutrality Acts of 1930s Septemberprogramm Treaty of Rapallo (1920)

Notes

Footnotes

^ see the Reparations section. ^ Similar wording was used in the treaties signed by the other defeated nations of the Central Powers. Article 117 of the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye with Austria, Article 161 of the Treaty of Trianon with Hungary, Article 121 of the Treaty Areas of Neuilly-sur-Seine with Bulgaria and Article 231 of the Treaty of Sevres with Turkey.[77][78][79][80] ^ see The Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, The Treaty of Trianon, The Treaty of Neuilly, and The Treaty of Sèvres.

Citations

^ a b c d e Treaty of Versailles
Versailles Preamble ^ a b Slavicek, p. 114 ^ Slavicek, p. 107 ^ Boyer, p. 153 ^ "Article 5. Form of a Treaty", The American Journal of International Law, Vol. 29, Supplement: Research in International Law (1935), pp. 722–39, at p. 725. ^ The order below is as it appears in the preamble of the treaty. The states are divided into two groups. In each, the states are listed alphabetically according to the French language. The United States
United States is alphabetised as Amérique. The order is otherwise the same as for English, except Czechoslovakia, which in French is Tchécoslovaquie.[5] ^ a b Treaty of Versailles
Versailles Signatures and Protocol ^ Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919)
Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919) with Austria; Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine with Bulgaria; Treaty of Trianon
Treaty of Trianon with Hungary; Treaty of Sèvres
Treaty of Sèvres with the Ottoman Empire; Davis, Robert T., ed. (2010). U.S. Foreign Policy and National Security: Chronology and Index for the 20th Century. 1. Santa Barbara, California: Praeger Security International. p. 49. ISBN 978-0-313-38385-4.  ^ Simkins, Jukes, Hickey, p. 9 ^ Bell, p. 19 ^ Folly, p. xxxiv ^ Tucker (2005a), p. 429 ^ Fourteen Points
Fourteen Points Speech ^ Irwin Unger, These United States
United States (2007) p. 561. ^ Simkins, Jukes, Hickey, p. 265 ^ a b Tucker (2005a), p. 225 ^ a b Truitt, p. 114 ^ Beller, pp. 182–95 ^ Bessel, pp. 47–48 ^ Hardach, pp. 183–84 ^ Simkins, p. 71 ^ Tucker (2005a), p. 638 ^ Schmitt, p. 101 ^ Schmitt, p. 102 ^ Weinberg, p. 8 ^ Boyer, p. 526 ^ Edmonds, (1943), p. 1 ^ Martel (1999), p. 18 ^ Grebler, Leo (1940). The Cost of the World War to Germany and Austria-Hungary. Yale University Press. 1940, p. 78 ^ a b Frucht, p. 24 ^ Lentin, Antony (1985) [1984]. Guilt at Versailles: Lloyd George and the Pre-history of Appeasement. Routledge. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-416-41130-0.  ^ Slavicek, pp. 40–41 ^ Venzon, p. 439 ^ Keylor, William R. (1998). The Legacy of the Great War: Peacemaking, 1919. Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin. p. 34. ISBN 0-669-41711-4.  ^ Larousse [1] ^ Sontag, p. 22 ^ John Maynard Keynes, The Economic Consequences of the Peace (Harcourt Brace and Howe, 1920) p. 34 ^ David Thomson, Europe Since Napoleon. Penguin Books. 1970, p. 605. ^ John Milton Cooper, Woodrow Wilson: A Biography (2011) pp. 454–505 ^ Slavicek, p. 73 ^ Treaty of Versailles, Articles 227–230 ^ Treaty of Versailles, Article 80 ^ Treaty of Versailles, Part XII ^ Treaty of Versailles, Article 246 ^ Treaty of Versailles, Articles 33 and 34 ^ Treaty of Versailles, Articles 45 and 49 ^ Treaty of Versailles, Section V preamble and Article 51 ^ Peckham, p. 107 ^ Treaty of Versailles, Articles 81 and 83 ^ Treaty of Versailles, Article 88 and annex ^ Martin, p. lii ^ Boemeke, p. 325 ^ Treaty of Versailles, Article 94 ^ Ingrao, p. 261 ^ Brezina, p. 34 ^ Treaty of Versailles, Article 99 ^ Treaty of Versailles, Articles 100–104 ^ Treaty of Versailles, Articles 22 and 119 ^ Tucker (2005a), p. 437 ^ a b Benians, p. 658 ^ Tucker (2005a), p. 1224 ^ Roberts, p. 496 ^ Treaty of Versailles, Article 156 ^ Shuster, p. 74 ^ Treaty of Versailles, Part V preamble ^ Treaty of Versailles, Articles 159, 160, 163 and Table 1 ^ Treaty of Versailles, Articles 173, 174, 175 and 176 ^ Treaty of Versailles, Articles 161, 162, and 176 ^ a b Treaty of Versailles, Articles 42, 43, and 180 ^ Treaty of Versailles, Article 115 ^ Treaty of Versailles, Articles 165, 170, 171, 172, 198 and tables No. II and III. ^ Treaty of Versailles, Articles 181 and 190 ^ Treaty of Versailles, Article 80 ^ Treaty of Versailles, Articles 185 and 187 ^ Treaty of Versailles, Articles 198, 201, and 202 ^ Treaty of Versailles, Article 231 ^ Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, Article 177 ^ Treaty of Trianon, Article 161 ^ Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine, Article 121 ^ Treaty of Sèvres, Article 231 ^ Martel (2010), p. 156 ^ Treaty of Versailles, Articles 232–35 ^ Treaty of Versailles, Article 428 ^ Treaty of Versailles, Article 429 ^ Treaty of Versailles, Article 430 ^ Treaty of Versailles, Part I ^ Treaty of Versailles, Part XIII preamble and Article 388 ^ Treaty of Versailles, Article 295 ^ Stevenson 1998, p. 10. ^ Lloyd George, 1938, p. ^ R. Henig, Versailles
Versailles and After: 1919–1933 (London: Routledge, 1995) p. 52. ^ Filipe Ribeiro de Meneses, Post-war Settlement (Portugal) in: 1914–1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War, ed. by Ute Daniel, Peter Gatrell, Oliver Janz, Heather Jones, Jennifer Keene, Alan Kramer, and Bill Nasson, issued by Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin 2014-12-18. ^ President Woodrow Wilson
Woodrow Wilson speaking on the League of Nations
League of Nations to a luncheon audience in Portland OR. 66th Cong., 1st sess. Senate Documents: Addresses of President Wilson (May–November 1919), vol. 11, no. 120, p. 206. ^ Thomas A. Bailey, Woodrow Wilson
Woodrow Wilson and the Great Betrayal (1945) online ^ William C. Widenor, Henry Cabot Lodge
Henry Cabot Lodge and the Search for an American Foreign Policy (1980) ^ Ralph A. Stone, The Irreconcilables: The Fight Against the League of Nations (1970) ^ John Milton Cooper, Jr. Woodrow Wilson: A Biography (2009) ch 22–23 ^ Duff, John B. (1968). "The Versailles
Versailles Treaty and the Irish-Americans". Journal of American History. 55 (3): 582–598. doi:10.2307/1891015. JSTOR 1891015.  ^ Wimer, Kurt; Wimer, Sarah (1967). "The Harding Administration, the League of Nations, and the Separate Peace Treaty". The Review of Politics. Cambridge University Press. 29 (1): 13–24. doi:10.1017/S0034670500023706. JSTOR 1405810.  ^ Staff (3 July 1921). "HARDING ENDS WAR; SIGNS PEACE DECREE AT SENATOR'S HOME. Thirty Persons Witness Momentous Act in Frelinghuysen Living Room at Raritan". The New York Times.  ^ Britains Forgotten Army, Director/Producer Simon Chu, Radio Times, p.61,63 11-17 November 2017 ^ The Betrayed Ally, China in the Great War, Introduction, Christopher Arnander & Frances Wood, Pen and Sword, 2016 ^ Bibliographical Introduction to "Diary, Reminiscences and Memories of Colonel Edward M. House". Archived 23 December 2009 at the Wayback Machine. ^ Foreign Minister Brockdorff-Ranzau when faced with the conditions on 7 May: "Wir kennen die Wucht des Hasses, die uns hier entgegentritt. Es wird von uns verlangt, daß wir uns als die allein Schuldigen am Krieg bekennen; ein solches Bekenntnis wäre in meinem Munde eine Lüge". 2008 School Projekt Heinrich-Heine-Gesamtschule, Düsseldorf http://www.fkoester.de/kursbuch/unterrichtsmaterial/13_2_74.html ^ 2008 School Projekt Heinrich-Heine-Gesamtschule, Düsseldorf http://www.fkoester.de/kursbuch/unterrichtsmaterial/13_2_74.html ^ Lauteinann, Geschichten in Quellen Bd. 6, S. 129. ^ Koppel S. Pinson (1964). Modern Germany: Its History and Civilization (13th printing ed.). New York: Macmillan. p. 397 f. ISBN 0-88133-434-0.  ^ Treaty of Versailles, Article 160 ^ Michael Geyer, Deutsche Rüstungspolitik 1860 bis 1980, Frankfurt 1984 ^ Treaty of Versailles, Part V ^ Fischer, Klaus (1995). Nazi Germany: A New History, p. 408. ^ Parker (1956), p. 355. ^ Treaty of Versailles, Article 80 ^ CBS World Roundup Broadcast 13 March 1938 Columbia Broadcasting System retrieved from http://otr.com/ra/news/CBS_Roundup_3-13-1938.mp3 ^ Stevenson 1998, p. 11. ^ John Maynard Keynes. The Economic Consequences of the Peace
The Economic Consequences of the Peace at Project Gutenberg ^ Markwell, Donald (2006). John Maynard Keynes
John Maynard Keynes and International Relations: Economic Paths to War and Peace. Oxford University Press.  ^ Keynes (1919). The Economic Consequences of the Peace. Ch VI. The Treaty includes no provisions for the economic rehabilitation of Europe—nothing to make the defeated Central Empires into good neighbours, nothing to stabilize the new States of Europe, nothing to reclaim Russia; nor does it promote in any way a compact of economic solidarity amongst the Allies themselves; no arrangement was reached at Paris for restoring the disordered finances of France
France and Italy, or to adjust the systems of the Old World and the New. The Council of Four paid no attention to these issues, being preoccupied with others—Clemenceau to crush the economic life of his enemy, Lloyd George to do a deal and bring home something which would pass muster for a week, the President to do nothing that was not just and right. It is an extraordinary fact that the fundamental economic problems of a Europe starving and disintegrating before their eyes, was the one question in which it was impossible to arouse the interest of the Four. Reparation was their main excursion into the economic field, and they settled it as a problem of theology, of polities, of electoral chicane, from every point of view except that of the economic future of the States whose destiny they were handling.  ^ Hantke, Max; Spoerer, Mark (2010). "The imposed gift of Versailles: the fiscal effects of restricting the size of Germany's armed forces, 1924–9" (PDF). Economic History Review. 63 (4): 849–864. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0289.2009.00512.x. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 October 2011.  ^ Reynolds, David. (20 February 1994). "Over There, and There, and There." Review of: "A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II," by Gerhard L. Weinberg. New York: Cambridge University Press. ^ Weinberg, Gerhard Germany, Hitler and World War II, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995, p. 16. ^ Correlli Barnett, The Collapse of British Power (London: Pan, 2002), p. 392. ^ Barnett, p. 316. ^ Barnett, p. 318. ^ Barnett, p. 319. ^ a b c d Evans, Richard In Hitler's Shadow, New York: Panatheon 1989, p. 107. ^ The Surrogate Hegemon in Polish Postcolonial Discourse Ewa Thompson, Rice University [2] ^ a b c d e Peukert, Detlev The Weimar Republic, New York: Hill & Wang, 1992 page 278. ^ a b c La Seconde Guerre mondiale, Raymond Cartier, Paris, Larousse Paris Match, 1965, quoted in: Pater Lothar Groppe (2004-08-28). "Die "Jagd auf Deutsche" im Osten: Die Verfolgung begann nicht erst mit dem "Bromberger Blutsonntag" vor 50 Jahren". Preußische Allgemeine Zeitung / 28. August 2004 (in German). Retrieved 2010-09-22. 'Von 1.058.000 Deutschen, die noch 1921 in Posen und Westpreußen lebten', ist bei Cartier zu lesen, 'waren bis 1926 unter polnischem Druck 758.867 abgewandert. Nach weiterer Drangsal wurde das volksdeutsche Bevölkerungselement vom Warschauer Innenministerium am 15. Juli 1939 auf weniger als 300.000 Menschen geschätzt.' 

Further reading

Andelman, David A. (2008). A Shattered Peace: Versailles
Versailles 1919 and the Price We Pay Today. New York/London: J. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-78898-0.  Bell, Origins of the Second World War Birdsall, Paul. Versailles
Versailles twenty years after (1941) old but still useful summary Boemke, Manfred F., Gerald D. Feldman, and Elisabeth Gläser (eds.), The Treaty of Versailles: A Reassessment After 75 Years. Washington, D.C.: German Historical Institute, 1998. Cooper, John Milton. Breaking the Heart of the World: Woodrow Wilson and the Fight for the League of Nations
League of Nations (2010) excerpt and text search Demarco, Neil (1987). The World This Century. London: Collins Educational. ISBN 0-00-322217-9.  Fischer, Klaus. Nazi Germany: A New History. New York: Continuum, 1995. ISBN 978-0-82640-797-9 Graebner, Norman A. and Edward M. Bennett, The Versailles
Versailles Treaty and Its Legacy: The Failure of the Wilsonian
Wilsonian Vision. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011. Herron, George D. (1924). The Defeat in the Victory. Boston: Christopher Publishing House. xvi, [4], 202 pp. Macmillan, Margaret (2001). Peacemakers. London: John Murray. ISBN 0-7195-5939-1. 

Also published as Macmillan, Margaret (2001). Paris 1919: Six Months That Changed the World. New York: Random House. ISBN 0-375-76052-0. 

Markwell, Donald (2006). John Maynard Keynes
John Maynard Keynes and International Relations. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-829236-8.  Martel, Origins of the Second World War Reconsidered Parker, R.A.C. "The First Capitulation: France
France and the Rhineland Crisis of 1936" pages 355–373 from World Politics, Volume 8, Issue # 3, April 1956. Sharp, Alan (2011). Consequences of Peace: The Versailles
Versailles Settlement: Aftermath and Legacy 1919–2010. Haus Publishing.  Sharp, Alan. The Versailles
Versailles Settlement: Peacemaking After the First World War, 1919–1923 (2008) Shepley, Nick. The Paris Peace Conference 1919: A student's guide to the Treaty of Versailles
Versailles (2015); 51pp online Sontag, Richard (1971). A Broken World, 1919-1939. Michigan: Harper and Row.  Stevenson, David (1998). " France
France at the Paris Peace Conference: Addressing the Dilemmas of Security". In Robert W. D. Boyce. French Foreign and Defence Policy, 1918–1940: The Decline and Fall of a Great Power. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-15039-2.  Wheeler-Bennett, Sir John (1972). The Wreck of Reparations, being the political background of the Lausanne Agreement, 1932. New York: H. Fertig. 

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Brusilov Offensive Baranovichi Offensive Battle of Romani Monastir Offensive Battle of Transylvania

1917

Capture of Baghdad First Battle of Gaza Zimmermann Telegram Second Battle of Arras Second Battle of the Aisne Kerensky Offensive Third Battle of Ypres (Passchendaele) Battle of Mărășești Battle of Caporetto Southern Palestine Offensive Battle of Cambrai Armistice of Erzincan

1918

Operation Faustschlag Treaty of Brest-Litovsk Spring Offensive Second Battle of the Marne Battle of Baku Hundred Days Offensive Vardar Offensive Battle of Megiddo Third Transjordan attack Meuse-Argonne Offensive Battle of Vittorio Veneto Battle of Aleppo Armistice of Salonica Armistice of Mudros Armistice of Villa Giusti Armistice with Germany

Other conflicts

Mexican Revolution
Mexican Revolution (1910–20) Somaliland Campaign
Somaliland Campaign (1910–20) Libyan resistance movement (1911–43) Maritz Rebellion (1914–15) Zaian War
Zaian War (1914–21) Indo-German Conspiracy (1914–19) Senussi Campaign
Senussi Campaign (1915–16) Volta-Bani War
Volta-Bani War (1915–17) Easter Rising
Easter Rising (1916) Anglo-Egyptian Darfur Expedition
Anglo-Egyptian Darfur Expedition (1916) Kaocen Revolt (1916–17) Central Asian Revolt (1916-17) Russian Revolution
Russian Revolution (1917) Finnish Civil War
Finnish Civil War (1918)

Post-War conflicts

Russian Civil War
Russian Civil War (1917–21) Ukrainian–Soviet War
Ukrainian–Soviet War (1917–21) Armenian–Azerbaijani War
Armenian–Azerbaijani War (1918–20) Georgian–Armenian War
Georgian–Armenian War (1918) German Revolution (1918–19) Revolutions and interventions in Hungary
Hungary (1918–20) Hungarian–Romanian War
Hungarian–Romanian War (1918–19) Greater Poland
Poland Uprising (1918–19) Estonian War of Independence
Estonian War of Independence (1918–20) Latvian War of Independence
Latvian War of Independence (1918–20) Lithuanian Wars of Independence
Lithuanian Wars of Independence (1918–20) Third Anglo-Afghan War
Third Anglo-Afghan War (1919) Egyptian Revolution (1919) Polish–Ukrainian War
Polish–Ukrainian War (1918–19) Polish–Soviet War
Polish–Soviet War (1919–21) Irish War of Independence
Irish War of Independence (1919–21) Turkish War of Independence

Greco-Turkish War (1919–22) Turkish–Armenian War
Turkish–Armenian War (1920)

Iraqi revolt (1920) Polish–Lithuanian War
Polish–Lithuanian War (1920) Vlora War
Vlora War (1920) Franco-Syrian War
Franco-Syrian War (1920) Soviet–Georgian War (1921) Irish Civil War
Irish Civil War (1922–23)

Aspects

Opposition

Pacifism Anti-war movement

Deployment

Schlieffen Plan
Schlieffen Plan (German) Plan XVII
Plan XVII (French)

Warfare

Military engagements Naval warfare Convoy system Air warfare Cryptography

Room 40

Horse use Poison gas Railways Strategic bombing Technology Trench warfare Total war Christmas truce Last surviving veterans

Civilian impact Atrocities Prisoners

Casualties Economic history 1918 flu pandemic Destruction of Kalisz Rape of Belgium German occupation of Belgium German occupation of Luxembourg German occupation of northeastern France Ober Ost Ottoman people

Armenian Genocide Assyrian genocide Pontic Greek genocide

Urkun (Kyrgyzstan) Blockade of Germany Women

Australia

Popular culture German prisoners of war in the United States

Agreements

Partition of the Ottoman Empire Sykes–Picot Agreement Agreement of Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne French-Armenian Agreement Damascus Protocol Paris Peace Conference Venizelos–Tittoni agreement

Treaties

Treaty of Brest-Litovsk Treaty of Lausanne Treaty of London Treaty of Neuilly Treaty of St. Germain Treaty of Sèvres Treaty of Trianon Treaty of Versailles

Consequences

Aftermath "Fourteen Points" League of Nations World War I
World War I memorials Centenary

outbreak

Category Portal

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Treaties of Japan

Bakumatsu
Bakumatsu period (1854–68)

Japan-US Treaty of Peace and Amity (1854) Anglo-Japanese Friendship Treaty (1854) Treaty of Commerce and Navigation between Japan and Russia (1855) Dutch-Japan Treaty of Peace and Amity (1856) (ja) Japan-US Additional Treaty (1857) Japan-Netherlands Additional Treaty (1857) (ja) Japan-Russia Additional Treaty (1857) Treaty of Amity and Commerce ( United States
United States – Japan) (1858) Treaty of Amity and Commerce between the Netherlands and Japan (1858) (ja) Treaty of Amity and Commerce between Russia and Japan (1858) Anglo-Japanese Treaty of Amity and Commerce
Anglo-Japanese Treaty of Amity and Commerce (1858) Treaty of Amity and Commerce between France
France and Japan (1858) Treaty of Amity and Commerce between Portugal
Portugal and Japan (1860) Treaty of Amity and Commerce between Prussia and Japan (1861) London Protocol (1862) Agreement of Paris (1864) (ja) Treaty of Amity and Commerce between Belgium
Belgium and Japan (1866) Treaty of Amity and Commerce between Italy and Japan (1866)

Meiji period (1868–1912)

Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation between Spain and Japan (1868) Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation Austria- Hungary
Hungary and Japan (1869) Sino-Japanese Friendship and Trade Treaty
Sino-Japanese Friendship and Trade Treaty (1871) Treaty of Amity and Commerce between Hawaii and Japan (1871) Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation between Peru
Peru and Japan (1873) Engagement between Japan and China respecting Formosa of 1874 Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1875) Japan–Korea Treaty of 1876 Japan–Korea Treaty of 1882 Japan-Hawaii Labor Immigration Treaty (1884) Japan–Korea Treaty of 1885 Convention of Tientsin (1885) Declaration of Amity and Commerce between Thailand
Thailand and Japan (1887) Treaty of Friendship and Commerce between Mexico and Japan (1888) Anglo-Japanese Treaty of Commerce and Navigation
Anglo-Japanese Treaty of Commerce and Navigation (1894) Treaty of Commerce and Navigation between Japan and the USA (1894) Italo–Japanese Treaty of Commerce and Navigation (1894) Japan-China Peace Treaty (1895) Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation between Brazil
Brazil and Japan (1895) Treaty for returning Fengtian Peninsula (1895) (ja) German–Japanese Treaty of Commerce and Navigation (1896) Komura-Weber Memorandum (1896) Yamagata–Lobanov Agreement (1896) Japan–China Treaty of Commerce and Navigation (1896) (ja) Franco–Japanese Treaty of Commerce and Navigation (1896) Japan–Netherlands Treaty of Commerce and Navigation (1896) Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation between Chile and Japan (1897) Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation between Argentina and Japan (1898) Nishi–Rosen Agreement (1898) Japan- Thailand
Thailand Friendship, Commerce and Navigation Treaty (1898) Boxer Protocol
Boxer Protocol (1901) Anglo-Japanese Alliance
Anglo-Japanese Alliance (1902) Japan-China Additional Treaty of Commerce and Navigation (1903) (ja) Japan–Korea Treaty of 1904 Japan–Korea Agreement of August 1904 Japan-Russia Treaty of Peace (1905) Taft–Katsura agreement (1905) Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905 Additional Agreement of the Japan-China Treaty relating to Manchuria (1905) (ja) Franco-Japanese Treaty of 1907 Japan–Korea Treaty of 1907 Russo-Japanese Agreement of 1907 Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907 Root–Takahira Agreement (1908) Japan-China Agreement relating to Manchuria and Jiandao (1909) (ja) Russo-Japanese Agreement of 1910 Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910 Treaty of Commerce and Navigation between Japan and the USA (1911) Anglo-Japanese Treaty of Commerce and Navigation
Anglo-Japanese Treaty of Commerce and Navigation (1911) North Pacific Fur Seal Convention of 1911 Russo-Japanese Agreement of 1912

World War I–II (1912–45)

Japan-China Treaty of 1915 Russo-Japanese Agreement of 1916 Lansing–Ishii Agreement
Lansing–Ishii Agreement (1917) Japan-China Co-defense Military Pact (1918) (ja) Treaty of Versailles
Versailles (1919) Covenant of the League of Nations
League of Nations (1919) Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919) Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine
Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine (1919) Svalbard Treaty
Svalbard Treaty (1920) Gongota Agreement of 1920 Treaty of Sèvres
Treaty of Sèvres (1920) Treaty of Trianon
Treaty of Trianon (1921) Four-Power Treaty (1921) Nine-Power Treaty
Nine-Power Treaty (1922) Treaty concerning solution of Shandong
Shandong issues (1922) (ja) Washington Naval Treaty
Washington Naval Treaty (1922) Treaty of Lausanne
Treaty of Lausanne (1923) Klaipėda Convention
Klaipėda Convention (1924) Soviet–Japanese Basic Convention (1925) German–Japanese Treaty of Commerce and Navigation (1927) Kellogg–Briand Pact
Kellogg–Briand Pact (1928) Japan-China Customs Agreement (1930) London Naval Treaty
London Naval Treaty (1930) Cease Fire Agreement in Shanghai (1932) (ja) Japan-Manchukuo Protocol (1932) Tanggu Truce
Tanggu Truce (1933) India-Japan Agreement of 1934 Japan-Manchukuo-Soviet Protocol for Cession of North Manchuria Railway (1935) (ja) He–Umezu Agreement (1935) Chin-Doihara Agreement (1935) Canada-Japan New Trade Agreement (1935) Japan-Netherlands Shipping Agreement (1936) Anti-Comintern Pact
Anti-Comintern Pact (1936) Hart-Ishizawa Agreement (1937) India-Japan Agreement of 1937 Van Mook-Kotani Agreement (1938) Tripartite Pact
Tripartite Pact (1940) Japan-China Basic Relations Treaty (1940) Japan-Manchukuo-China Joint Declaration (1940) (ja) Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact
Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact (1941) Japan- Thailand
Thailand Attack/Defence Alliance Treaty (1941) (ja) Japanese Instrument of Surrender
Japanese Instrument of Surrender (1945)

During Cold War (1945–89)

Security Treaty between the United States
United States and Japan (1951) Treaty of San Francisco
Treaty of San Francisco (1951) Sino-Japanese Peace Treaty (1952) Treaty of Peace between Japan and India (1952) Treaty of Peace between Japan and Burma (1954) Japan–Philippines Reparations Agreement (1956) Soviet–Japanese Joint Declaration of 1956 Treaty of Peace between Japan and Indonesia (1958) Japan–South Vietnam Reparations Agreement (1959) Japan–US Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security (1960) Tokyo Convention (1963) Japan–South Korea Treaty (1965) Ogasawara Reversion Agreement (1968) Okinawa Reversion Agreement (1971) Japan–China Joint Communiqué (1972) Japan–North Vietnam Agreement (1973) Japan–China Trade Agreement (1974) Basic Treaty between Japan and Australia (1976) Sino–Japanese Peace and Friendship Treaty (1978)

Authority control

WorldCat Identities VIAF: 216082262 GND: 4063141-2 BNF: cb162047487 (data) HDS: 2