Transitional Government of Ethiopia

The Transitional Government of Ethiopia (TGE) was an era established immediately after the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) seized power from the Marxist-Leninist People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (PDRE) in 1991. During the transitional period, Meles Zenawi served as the president of the TGE while Tamrat Layne was prime minister. Among other major shifts in the country's political institutions, it was under the authority of the TGE that the realignment of provincial boundaries on the basis of ethnolinguistic identity occurred. The TGE was in power until 1995, when it transitioned into the reconstituted Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia that remains today.

Background

In May 1991, the PDRE (1987-1991) was overthrown by forces consisting of the TPLF and the TPLF-controlled EPRDF with the promise that a recognition of human rights, democracy, the liberalization of the economic sector, and political rehabilitation were soon to follow. The PDRE, the country's newest civilian regime, was actually dominated by leaders of the preceding Derg (1974-1987) a military junta led by Mengistu Haile Mariam that seized power by overthrowing the long-ruling Emperor Haile Selassie I in 1974. The Derg (meaning "committee" or "council") and its leaders were known for dramatically restructuring the country's political and economic institutions, often through the use of suppression and fear, while transforming the central government's role in domestic affairs. Programs such as the extensive villagization schemes carried out in various parts of the country further served as a testament to the regime's commitment to radical reform measures.

Once in power, the leaders of the PDRE continued pursuing their aims as former Derg leaders, such as by resuming forced resettlement programs that were deemed nonviable by many and were ultimately met with a considerable amount of international criticism. Scholars have noted that the fall of the PDRE was largely made possible by the loss of both financial and military support from the dwindling Soviet Union, which had previously backed the Derg following their seizure of power in 1974. The EPRDF capitalized on the mismanaged PDRE's weakening state and general unpopularity when rebel forces officially seized power from the PRDE in May 1991.

Soon after the EPRDF secured the nation's capital, a "National Conference on Peace and Reconciliation" was called in Addis Ababa. Held in July 1991, the conference was intended to outline a transitional framework for the period following the newest regime change. Some notable ethnicity-based political movements that were present include the Oromo Liberation Front, the Afar Liberation Front, and the Western Somali Liberation Front. Any political organizations that wanted to attend was required to be centered around ethnic identity; thus, several organizations were quickly created for that purpose, resulting in the rapid development of urban elite-led ethnicity-based movements.Vaughan, Sarah 1994. ''The Addis Ababa Transitional Conference of July 1991: its origin, history and significance.'' Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Centre for African Studies. Any person or political organization that had been associated with Mengistu Haile Mariam's Workers' Party of Ethiopia was also not permitted to attend.

Transitional charter

The 1991 conference ultimately resulted in the adoption of the "Transitional Period Charter of Ethiopia" and the official establishment of a transitional government. Much to the relief of the international community, the conference attendees agreed on major transformations of the country's political and economic systems that would usher in liberal institutions that were purportedly intended to guarantee fair representation, encourage plurality, and demand transparency at the executive level.Vaughan, Sarah 1994. ''The Addis Ababa Transitional Conference of July 1991: its origin, history and significance.'' Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Centre for African Studies.

This and other key initiatives of the TGE were outlined in the Transitional Period Charter of Ethiopia, which was divided into five parts:

Part I: democratic Rights

Explicitly drawing from the United Nations' Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Article One of the Charter declares that every individual is entitled to the following:

"a. The freedom of conscience, expression, association, and peaceable assembly; b. The right to engage in unrestricted political activity and to organize political parties, provided the exercise of such right does not infringe upon the rights of others."

Article Two concerns the rights of "nations, nationalities, and peoples" in Ethiopia, referring to the various ethnolinguistic groups in the country. Not only does the Charter protect nationalities' right to exercise their autonomy, but it also allows them to secede ("self-determination of independence") if they so wish.

Part II: Principles guiding foreign policy

This section briefly affirms the TGE's authority to "abide by all mutual agreements that respect the sovereignty of Ethiopia and are not contrary to the interests of the People." In addition, it grants subnational governments the right to form their own relationships with foreign organizations if it is for the purpose of humanitarian or relief efforts.

Part III: Structure and Composition of the Transitional Government

This section outlines the structure of the Transitional Government, starting with the establishment of a Council of Representatives, which "shall be composed of representatives of national liberation movements, other political organizations and prominent individuals, to make-up a total of no more than 87 members." The Council of Representatives was also responsible for supporting the work of the unelected Council of Ministers, which primarily consisted of members selected by the heads of state (president, prime minister, etc.).

Part IV: Transitional programme

Part IV provides a general outline of the remaining actions to be taken during the transitional period. It assigns the Council of Representatives with the responsibility to oversee the creation of a draft constitution that would eventually be presented to the Constituent Assembly before being formally adopted. Article twelve briefly mandates that elections for a National Assembly, must be held within the following two years; the Transitional Government was expected to hand over power to the parties who make up a majority of the Assembly.

The second section of Part IV expresses the Transitional Government's commitment to relief efforts supporting those whose lives had been severely impacted by armed conflict, violence on behalf of the previous regime, and to "the rehabilitation of those forceably icuprooted by the previous regime's policy of villagisation and resettlement." Article Seventeen makes an additional reference to the state of inter-ethnic relations in the country"

" he Transitional Governmentshall make special efforts to dispel ethnic mistrust and eradicate the ethnic hatred that have been fostered by the previous regimes."

Part V: Legality of the charter

Part V proclaims the Charter's authority as "the supreme law of the land for the duration of the transitional period," effective 22 July 1991.

Leadership

The Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) was a coalition of various ethnically-based political movement created by the Tigray People's Liberation Front (TPLF), a guerrilla movement formed in the contemporary Tigray region of northern Ethiopia in 1975. The TPLF was at the core of the EPRDF, although other political movements in the coalition included the Ethiopian People's Democratic Movement (which later became the Amhara National Democratic Movement, representing those from what is now known as the Amhara region of the country) and the Oromo People's Democratic Organisation (OPDO), representing those from the Oromia region of Ethiopia.

1992 marked the first elections of the transitional period, which were held to select representatives for 14 new regional assemblies. The main political movements competing for power were the EPRDF, the All Amhara People's Organisation, and the Oromo Liberation Front (OLF). During the campaign cycle, various opposition movements (including the OLF) publicly withdrew from the races, complaining that the threats and intimidation tactics allegedly used by the EPRDF would make it impossible for the elections to be free and fair.

The potential for the EPRDF to assume total power in the Transitional Government was suspected by many from the beginning. At the 1991 National Conference on Peace and Reconciliation, one foreign onlooker commented that " lthough_the_1991_conference_may_not_have_resulted_in_a_one_party_government[,its_convention_reflects_to_a_large_degree_a_one_party_dynamic."_The_terms_of_the_resulting_charter_were_likewise_mainly_drawn_from_the_key_ideals_of_the_EPRDF_(particularly_those_of_the_TPLF)._In_addition,_the_president_of_the_TGE_was__Meles_Zenawi,_chairman_of_the_TPLF;_his_colleague,_fellow_EPRDF_leader__Tamrat_Layne,_became_the_prime_minister._Thirty-two_of_the_eighty-seven_seats_in_the_Council_of_Representatives_were_filled_by_EPRDF_members_as_well._The_TGE_also_took_steps_to_cleanse_the_government_of_any_traces_of_the_previous_regime,_such_as_removing_and_replacing_the_occupants_of_almost_all_senior_government_posts,_reorganizing_all_state_agencies_and_institutions,_and_disbanding_the_Derg's_large_military_force.

__Ethnic_federalism_

One_of_the_most_dramatic_political_changes_overseen_by_the_Transitional_Government_was_the_realignment_of_provincial_boundaries_on_the_Ethnic_federalism.html" ;"title=".html" ;"title="lthough the 1991 conference may not have resulted in a one party government lthough_the_1991_conference_may_not_have_resulted_in_a_one_party_government[,its_convention_reflects_to_a_large_degree_a_one_party_dynamic."_The_terms_of_the_resulting_charter_were_likewise_mainly_drawn_from_the_key_ideals_of_the_EPRDF_(particularly_those_of_the_TPLF)._In_addition,_the_president_of_the_TGE_was__Meles_Zenawi,_chairman_of_the_TPLF;_his_colleague,_fellow_EPRDF_leader__Tamrat_Layne,_became_the_prime_minister._Thirty-two_of_the_eighty-seven_seats_in_the_Council_of_Representatives_were_filled_by_EPRDF_members_as_well._The_TGE_also_took_steps_to_cleanse_the_government_of_any_traces_of_the_previous_regime,_such_as_removing_and_replacing_the_occupants_of_almost_all_senior_government_posts,_reorganizing_all_state_agencies_and_institutions,_and_disbanding_the_Derg's_large_military_force.

__Ethnic_federalism_

One_of_the_most_dramatic_political_changes_overseen_by_the_Transitional_Government_was_the_realignment_of_provincial_boundaries_on_the_Ethnic_federalism">basis_of_ethnolinguistic_identity._This_marked_the_beginning_of_Ethiopia's_first_federal_administrative_structure,_made_up_of_nine_ lthough_the_1991_conference_may_not_have_resulted_in_a_one_party_government[,its_convention_reflects_to_a_large_degree_a_one_party_dynamic."_The_terms_of_the_resulting_charter_were_likewise_mainly_drawn_from_the_key_ideals_of_the_EPRDF_(particularly_those_of_the_TPLF)._In_addition,_the_president_of_the_TGE_was__Meles_Zenawi,_chairman_of_the_TPLF;_his_colleague,_fellow_EPRDF_leader__Tamrat_Layne,_became_the_prime_minister._Thirty-two_of_the_eighty-seven_seats_in_the_Council_of_Representatives_were_filled_by_EPRDF_members_as_well._The_TGE_also_took_steps_to_cleanse_the_government_of_any_traces_of_the_previous_regime,_such_as_removing_and_replacing_the_occupants_of_almost_all_senior_government_posts,_reorganizing_all_state_agencies_and_institutions,_and_disbanding_the_Derg's_large_military_force.

__Ethnic_federalism_

One_of_the_most_dramatic_political_changes_overseen_by_the_Transitional_Government_was_the_realignment_of_provincial_boundaries_on_the_Ethnic_federalism">basis_of_ethnolinguistic_identity._This_marked_the_beginning_of_Ethiopia's_first_federal_administrative_structure,_made_up_of_nine_Regions_of_Ethiopia">regional_states_(singular:_ክልል_''kilil;_plural:_kililoch'')._Article_Two_of_the_Transitional_Period_Charter_of_Ethiopia_formally_proclaims_the_rights_of_ethnic_groups_within_the_country,_which_are_officially_referred_to_as_nations_or_nationalities:

"The_right_of_nations,_nationalities_and_peoples_to_self-determination_is_affirmed._to_this_end,_each_nation,_nationality_and_people_is_guaranteed_the_right_to:

a./_Preserve_its_identity_and_have_it_respected,_promote_its_culture_and_history_and_use_and_develop_its_language;

b./_Administer_its_own_affairs_within_its_own_defined_territory_and_effectively_participate_in_the_central_government_on_the_basis_of_freedom,_and_fair_and_proper_representation;

c./_Exercise_its_right_to_self_determination_of_independence,_when_the_concerned,_nation/nationality_and_people_is_convinced_that_the_above_rights_are_denied,_abridged_or_abrogated."

As_such,_one_of_the_TGE's_main_aims_was_to_establish_a_devolution_of_political_power_down_to_ethnic_divisions,_arguing_that_it_was_an_essential_move_if_the_country_wanted_to_lessen_conflicts_across_ethnic_lines,_ensure_a_fairer_distribution_of_resources_across_the_country,_and_increase_efficiency_within_the_public_sector._By_1994,_the_ethnically-based_regions_of_lthough_the_1991_conference_may_not_have_resulted_in_a_one_party_government[,its_convention_reflects_to_a_large_degree_a_one_party_dynamic."_The_terms_of_the_resulting_charter_were_likewise_mainly_drawn_from_the_key_ideals_of_the_EPRDF_(particularly_those_of_the_TPLF)._In_addition,_the_president_of_the_TGE_was__Meles_Zenawi,_chairman_of_the_TPLF;_his_colleague,_fellow_EPRDF_leader__Tamrat_Layne,_became_the_prime_minister._Thirty-two_of_the_eighty-seven_seats_in_the_Council_of_Representatives_were_filled_by_EPRDF_members_as_well._The_TGE_also_took_steps_to_cleanse_the_government_of_any_traces_of_the_previous_regime,_such_as_removing_and_replacing_the_occupants_of_almost_all_senior_government_posts,_reorganizing_all_state_agencies_and_institutions,_and_disbanding_the_Derg's_large_military_force.

__Ethnic_federalism_

One_of_the_most_dramatic_political_changes_overseen_by_the_Transitional_Government_was_the_realignment_of_provincial_boundaries_on_the_Ethnic_federalism">basis_of_ethnolinguistic_identity._This_marked_the_beginning_of_Ethiopia's_first_federal_administrative_structure,_made_up_of_nine_Regions_of_Ethiopia">regional_states_(singular:_ክልል_''kilil;_plural:_kililoch'')._Article_Two_of_the_Transitional_Period_Charter_of_Ethiopia_formally_proclaims_the_rights_of_ethnic_groups_within_the_country,_which_are_officially_referred_to_as_nations_or_nationalities:

"The_right_of_nations,_nationalities_and_peoples_to_self-determination_is_affirmed._to_this_end,_each_nation,_nationality_and_people_is_guaranteed_the_right_to:

a./_Preserve_its_identity_and_have_it_respected,_promote_its_culture_and_history_and_use_and_develop_its_language;

b./_Administer_its_own_affairs_within_its_own_defined_territory_and_effectively_participate_in_the_central_government_on_the_basis_of_freedom,_and_fair_and_proper_representation;

c./_Exercise_its_right_to_self_determination_of_independence,_when_the_concerned,_nation/nationality_and_people_is_convinced_that_the_above_rights_are_denied,_abridged_or_abrogated."

As_such,_one_of_the_TGE's_main_aims_was_to_establish_a_devolution_of_political_power_down_to_ethnic_divisions,_arguing_that_it_was_an_essential_move_if_the_country_wanted_to_lessen_conflicts_across_ethnic_lines,_ensure_a_fairer_distribution_of_resources_across_the_country,_and_increase_efficiency_within_the_public_sector._By_1994,_the_ethnically-based_regions_of_Afar_Region">Afar,__Tigray,_ lthough_the_1991_conference_may_not_have_resulted_in_a_one_party_government[,its_convention_reflects_to_a_large_degree_a_one_party_dynamic."_The_terms_of_the_resulting_charter_were_likewise_mainly_drawn_from_the_key_ideals_of_the_EPRDF_(particularly_those_of_the_TPLF)._In_addition,_the_president_of_the_TGE_was__Meles_Zenawi,_chairman_of_the_TPLF;_his_colleague,_fellow_EPRDF_leader__Tamrat_Layne,_became_the_prime_minister._Thirty-two_of_the_eighty-seven_seats_in_the_Council_of_Representatives_were_filled_by_EPRDF_members_as_well._The_TGE_also_took_steps_to_cleanse_the_government_of_any_traces_of_the_previous_regime,_such_as_removing_and_replacing_the_occupants_of_almost_all_senior_government_posts,_reorganizing_all_state_agencies_and_institutions,_and_disbanding_the_Derg's_large_military_force.

__Ethnic_federalism_

One_of_the_most_dramatic_political_changes_overseen_by_the_Transitional_Government_was_the_realignment_of_provincial_boundaries_on_the_Ethnic_federalism">basis_of_ethnolinguistic_identity._This_marked_the_beginning_of_Ethiopia's_first_federal_administrative_structure,_made_up_of_nine_Regions_of_Ethiopia">regional_states_(singular:_ክልል_''kilil;_plural:_kililoch'')._Article_Two_of_the_Transitional_Period_Charter_of_Ethiopia_formally_proclaims_the_rights_of_ethnic_groups_within_the_country,_which_are_officially_referred_to_as_nations_or_nationalities:

"The_right_of_nations,_nationalities_and_peoples_to_self-determination_is_affirmed._to_this_end,_each_nation,_nationality_and_people_is_guaranteed_the_right_to:

a./_Preserve_its_identity_and_have_it_respected,_promote_its_culture_and_history_and_use_and_develop_its_language;

b./_Administer_its_own_affairs_within_its_own_defined_territory_and_effectively_participate_in_the_central_government_on_the_basis_of_freedom,_and_fair_and_proper_representation;

c./_Exercise_its_right_to_self_determination_of_independence,_when_the_concerned,_nation/nationality_and_people_is_convinced_that_the_above_rights_are_denied,_abridged_or_abrogated."

As_such,_one_of_the_TGE's_main_aims_was_to_establish_a_devolution_of_political_power_down_to_ethnic_divisions,_arguing_that_it_was_an_essential_move_if_the_country_wanted_to_lessen_conflicts_across_ethnic_lines,_ensure_a_fairer_distribution_of_resources_across_the_country,_and_increase_efficiency_within_the_public_sector._By_1994,_the_ethnically-based_regions_of_Afar_Region">Afar,__Tigray,_Somali_Region">Somali_
Somali_may_refer_to:
_Horn_of_Africa
*_Somalis,_an_inhabitant_or_ethnicity_associated_with_Greater_Somali_Region
**_Proto-Somali,_the_ancestors_of_modern_Somalis
**__Somali_culture
**_Somali_cuisine
**_Somali_language,_a_Cushitic_language
**_Somali_...
,_lthough_the_1991_conference_may_not_have_resulted_in_a_one_party_government[,its_convention_reflects_to_a_large_degree_a_one_party_dynamic."_The_terms_of_the_resulting_charter_were_likewise_mainly_drawn_from_the_key_ideals_of_the_EPRDF_(particularly_those_of_the_TPLF)._In_addition,_the_president_of_the_TGE_was__Meles_Zenawi,_chairman_of_the_TPLF;_his_colleague,_fellow_EPRDF_leader__Tamrat_Layne,_became_the_prime_minister._Thirty-two_of_the_eighty-seven_seats_in_the_Council_of_Representatives_were_filled_by_EPRDF_members_as_well._The_TGE_also_took_steps_to_cleanse_the_government_of_any_traces_of_the_previous_regime,_such_as_removing_and_replacing_the_occupants_of_almost_all_senior_government_posts,_reorganizing_all_state_agencies_and_institutions,_and_disbanding_the_Derg's_large_military_force.

__Ethnic_federalism_

One_of_the_most_dramatic_political_changes_overseen_by_the_Transitional_Government_was_the_realignment_of_provincial_boundaries_on_the_Ethnic_federalism">basis_of_ethnolinguistic_identity._This_marked_the_beginning_of_Ethiopia's_first_federal_administrative_structure,_made_up_of_nine_Regions_of_Ethiopia">regional_states_(singular:_ክልል_''kilil;_plural:_kililoch'')._Article_Two_of_the_Transitional_Period_Charter_of_Ethiopia_formally_proclaims_the_rights_of_ethnic_groups_within_the_country,_which_are_officially_referred_to_as_nations_or_nationalities:

"The_right_of_nations,_nationalities_and_peoples_to_self-determination_is_affirmed._to_this_end,_each_nation,_nationality_and_people_is_guaranteed_the_right_to:

a./_Preserve_its_identity_and_have_it_respected,_promote_its_culture_and_history_and_use_and_develop_its_language;

b./_Administer_its_own_affairs_within_its_own_defined_territory_and_effectively_participate_in_the_central_government_on_the_basis_of_freedom,_and_fair_and_proper_representation;

c./_Exercise_its_right_to_self_determination_of_independence,_when_the_concerned,_nation/nationality_and_people_is_convinced_that_the_above_rights_are_denied,_abridged_or_abrogated."

As_such,_one_of_the_TGE's_main_aims_was_to_establish_a_devolution_of_political_power_down_to_ethnic_divisions,_arguing_that_it_was_an_essential_move_if_the_country_wanted_to_lessen_conflicts_across_ethnic_lines,_ensure_a_fairer_distribution_of_resources_across_the_country,_and_increase_efficiency_within_the_public_sector._By_1994,_the_ethnically-based_regions_of_Afar_Region">Afar,__Tigray,_Somali_Region">Somali_
Somali_may_refer_to:
_Horn_of_Africa
*_Somalis,_an_inhabitant_or_ethnicity_associated_with_Greater_Somali_Region
**_Proto-Somali,_the_ancestors_of_modern_Somalis
**__Somali_culture
**_Somali_cuisine
**_Somali_language,_a_Cushitic_language
**_Somali_...
,_Amhara_Region">Amhara,_lthough_the_1991_conference_may_not_have_resulted_in_a_one_party_government[,its_convention_reflects_to_a_large_degree_a_one_party_dynamic."_The_terms_of_the_resulting_charter_were_likewise_mainly_drawn_from_the_key_ideals_of_the_EPRDF_(particularly_those_of_the_TPLF)._In_addition,_the_president_of_the_TGE_was__Meles_Zenawi,_chairman_of_the_TPLF;_his_colleague,_fellow_EPRDF_leader__Tamrat_Layne,_became_the_prime_minister._Thirty-two_of_the_eighty-seven_seats_in_the_Council_of_Representatives_were_filled_by_EPRDF_members_as_well._The_TGE_also_took_steps_to_cleanse_the_government_of_any_traces_of_the_previous_regime,_such_as_removing_and_replacing_the_occupants_of_almost_all_senior_government_posts,_reorganizing_all_state_agencies_and_institutions,_and_disbanding_the_Derg's_large_military_force.

__Ethnic_federalism_

One_of_the_most_dramatic_political_changes_overseen_by_the_Transitional_Government_was_the_realignment_of_provincial_boundaries_on_the_Ethnic_federalism">basis_of_ethnolinguistic_identity._This_marked_the_beginning_of_Ethiopia's_first_federal_administrative_structure,_made_up_of_nine_Regions_of_Ethiopia">regional_states_(singular:_ክልል_''kilil;_plural:_kililoch'')._Article_Two_of_the_Transitional_Period_Charter_of_Ethiopia_formally_proclaims_the_rights_of_ethnic_groups_within_the_country,_which_are_officially_referred_to_as_nations_or_nationalities:

"The_right_of_nations,_nationalities_and_peoples_to_self-determination_is_affirmed._to_this_end,_each_nation,_nationality_and_people_is_guaranteed_the_right_to:

a./_Preserve_its_identity_and_have_it_respected,_promote_its_culture_and_history_and_use_and_develop_its_language;

b./_Administer_its_own_affairs_within_its_own_defined_territory_and_effectively_participate_in_the_central_government_on_the_basis_of_freedom,_and_fair_and_proper_representation;

c./_Exercise_its_right_to_self_determination_of_independence,_when_the_concerned,_nation/nationality_and_people_is_convinced_that_the_above_rights_are_denied,_abridged_or_abrogated."

As_such,_one_of_the_TGE's_main_aims_was_to_establish_a_devolution_of_political_power_down_to_ethnic_divisions,_arguing_that_it_was_an_essential_move_if_the_country_wanted_to_lessen_conflicts_across_ethnic_lines,_ensure_a_fairer_distribution_of_resources_across_the_country,_and_increase_efficiency_within_the_public_sector._By_1994,_the_ethnically-based_regions_of_Afar_Region">Afar,__Tigray,_Somali_Region">Somali_
Somali_may_refer_to:
_Horn_of_Africa
*_Somalis,_an_inhabitant_or_ethnicity_associated_with_Greater_Somali_Region
**_Proto-Somali,_the_ancestors_of_modern_Somalis
**__Somali_culture
**_Somali_cuisine
**_Somali_language,_a_Cushitic_language
**_Somali_...
,_Amhara_Region">Amhara,_Benishangul-Gumuz_Region">Benishangul-Gumuz_

Benishangul-Gumuz_(_am,_ቤንሻንጉል_ጉሙዝ,_Benšangul_Gumuz)_is_a__regional_state_in_northwestern__Ethiopia_to_the_border_of__Sudan._It_was_previously_known_as_Region_6._The_region's_capital_is__Assosa._Following_the_adoption_of_the__...