Traditional Cambodian medicine
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Traditional Cambodian medicine ( km, វេជ្ជសាស្រ្តបូរាណខ្មែរ,
ALA-LC ALA-LC (American Library AssociationLibrary of Congress) is a set of standards for romanization, the representation of text in other writing systems using the Latin script. Applications The system is used to represent bibliographic information by ...
: ) comprise several
traditional medicine Traditional medicine (also known as indigenous medicine or folk medicine) comprises medical aspects of traditional knowledge that developed over generations within the folk beliefs of various societies, including indigenous peoples, before the ...
systems in
Cambodia Cambodia (; also Kampuchea ; km, កម្ពុជា, UNGEGN: ), officially the Kingdom of Cambodia, is a country located in the southern portion of the Indochinese Peninsula in Southeast Asia, spanning an area of , bordered by Thailand t ...
. Healers and herbalists of Cambodian traditional medicine are collectively referred to as ''Kru Khmer'' ( km, គ្រូខ្មែរ, link=no). There are many regional variations of the practice and herbal knowledge of traditional medicine within Cambodia. Traditional Cambodian medical practices are widely used in Cambodia. Even though health is among the Cambodian government's five most important issues, the healthcare system in the country is inadequate and people in more remote villages in the provinces have difficulty obtaining health care. This situation is reflected in many
developing countries A developing country is a sovereign state with a lesser developed industrial base and a lower Human Development Index (HDI) relative to other countries. However, this definition is not universally agreed upon. There is also no clear agreem ...
and, in part for this reason, the
World Health Organization The World Health Organization (WHO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations responsible for international public health. The WHO Constitution states its main objective as "the attainment by all peoples of the highest possible level of h ...
(WHO) is promoting the use and preservation of knowledge of several traditional medicines in many of these areas across the globe, including Cambodia. Because of the ethnic Chinese and ethnic Vietnamese populations of Cambodia,
traditional Chinese medicine Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is an alternative medical practice drawn from traditional medicine in China. It has been described as "fraught with pseudoscience", with the majority of its treatments having no logical mechanism of action ...
and
traditional Vietnamese medicine Traditional Vietnamese medicine (Y học Cổ truyền Việt Nam), also known as Southern Herbology (Thuốc Nam) is a traditional medicine practiced by Vietnamese people. It is influenced by traditional Chinese medicine. The other traditional ...
are also practiced and represented in the country.


Techniques and culture

Practitioners of traditional Cambodian medicine are called ''Kru Khmer'' (or alternately ''kru khmae'') (គ្រូខ្មែរ) meaning "Khmer teachers", and the teacher-student aspect between practitioner and patient is of central importance to the consultation. ''Kru Khmer'' specialise in several categories, such as bone setting, herbalism or
divining Divination (from Latin ''divinare'', 'to foresee, to foretell, to predict, to prophesy') is the attempt to gain insight into a question or situation by way of an occultic, standardized process or ritual. Used in various forms throughout histor ...
. Various animal parts, minerals and tattoos are sometimes involved.See ''Kru Khmer'' (p.52 f) in ''Medical Identities''. In the framework of traditional Cambodian medicine, the supernatural world can both cure and cause illness and therefore the definitions between what is medicinal and what is spiritual is often blurred.See the TRAFFIC report. Khmer traditional medicine share with
Chinese traditional medicine Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is an alternative medical practice drawn from traditional medicine in China. It has been described as "fraught with pseudoscience", with the majority of its treatments having no logical mechanism of action ...
three explanatory models of disease: supernaturalistic theory, naturalistic theory, and maintenance of a hot-cold (
yin-yang Yin and yang ( and ) is a Chinese philosophical concept that describes opposite but interconnected forces. In Chinese cosmology, the universe creates itself out of a primary chaos of material energy, organized into the cycles of yin and ya ...
) balance. Four forms of therapy are delivered by medical and para-medical personnel: spirit offerings,
dermabrasion Dermabrasion is a type of surgical skin planing, generally with the goal of removing acne, scarring and other skin or tissue irregularities, typically performed in a professional medical setting by a dermatologist or plastic surgeon trained speci ...
, maintaining hot-cold balance, and herbal medicines. The knowledge of Khmer traditional medicine is mediated from teacher to teacher. Each ''Kru Khmer'' answers to his individual teacher, called ''Kru Khom'', through a spiritual connection, even after the death of his ''Kru Khom''. There are intricate rules and rituals involved in this relationship. Khmer traditional medicine used to rely on written texts, or palm-leaf manuscripts, since the 9th century, stored and studied at the many temples across the former Khmer Empire. However, during the
Cambodian civil war The Cambodian Civil War ( km, សង្គ្រាមស៊ីវិលកម្ពុជា, Romanization of Khmer#UNGEGN, UNGEGN: ) was a civil war in Cambodia fought between the forces of the Communist Party of Kampuchea (known as the Khme ...
and the following
Khmer Rouge The Khmer Rouge (; ; km, ខ្មែរក្រហម, ; ) is the name that was popularly given to members of the Communist Party of Kampuchea (CPK) and by extension to the regime through which the CPK ruled Cambodia between 1975 and 1979. ...
regime, virtually all historic scholarly texts and philosophical literature in Cambodia were destroyed, including many Khmer medical manuscripts. To understand the profession and practice of the ''Kru Khmer'' in more detail, the profession may be divided into a number of sub-classifications, each tied to a specific method, affliction of attention and/or service provided. * (or ) ( or ) means "medicine combiner" and comprise traditional herbalists. * (or ) ( or ) means "broken" (or "bone connector"). These are bone-setters using various herbal concoctions in bandages. * () are
diviner Diviner, also referred to as the Diviner Lunar Radiometer Experiment (DLRE), is an infrared radiometer aboard NASA's Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, part of the Lunar Precursor Robotic Program which is studying the Moon. It has been used to create ...
s and
fortune-tellers Fortune telling is the practice of predicting information about a person's life. Melton, J. Gordon. (2008). ''The Encyclopedia of Religious Phenomena''. Visible Ink Press. pp. 115-116. The scope of fortune telling is in principle identical w ...
. Methods range from astrological charts and mantras to herbs and blowing (). * () means "charmer" and these ''kru khmer''s makes "love medicine" or
charms Charm may refer to: Social science * Charisma, a person or thing's pronounced ability to attract others * Superficial charm, flattery, telling people what they want to hear Science and technology * Charm quark, a type of elementary particle * Ch ...
to be used for general luck. * () are diviners with permanent access to some special spirits. They are supposed to divine the course of certain diseases and sometimes use herbs too. * () are sorcerers said to cause illness or inflict evil upon people. Broadly despised and feared in traditional Cambodian culture and viewed as evil themselves, no would admit to be or practise . To cure evil inflicted by one would need the help from a , , or a Buddhist monk. * (or ) ( or ) meaning "body enterer", are possessed spirit mediums, often female. They are able to perform diagnosis or
exorcism Exorcism () is the religious or spiritual practice of evicting demons, jinns, or other malevolent spiritual entities from a person, or an area, that is believed to be possessed. Depending on the spiritual beliefs of the exorcist, this may be ...
s. * Buddhist monks plays a role in the practice of traditional Cambodian medicine, as they perform exorcisms, mostly preventive exorcisms. * () are
midwives A midwife is a health professional who cares for mothers and newborns around childbirth, a specialization known as midwifery. The education and training for a midwife concentrates extensively on the care of women throughout their lifespan; co ...
who, under the guidance of a personal spirit, performs nursing and ritual assistance for mother and child during and after delivery. Individual ''Kru Khmer'' healers may perform several roles altogether.


History

The exact origins of traditional Khmer medicine (TKM) remains unclear, but it is believed to have been founded and formalised from the Nokor Phnom period (Funan era) to the 9th century, during the Angkorian period."''History of medicine''", by Prof. Iv Chan, p.70-76, published in 2010. It is influenced by
Ayurveda Ayurveda () is an alternative medicine system with historical roots in the Indian subcontinent. The theory and practice of Ayurveda is pseudoscientific. Ayurveda is heavily practiced in India and Nepal, where around 80% of the population repo ...
(traditional Indian medicine) and
traditional Chinese medicine Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is an alternative medical practice drawn from traditional medicine in China. It has been described as "fraught with pseudoscience", with the majority of its treatments having no logical mechanism of action ...
. These foreign frameworks and practices were mixed with local beliefs and superstitions to create the foundations of TKM. The temple of
Neak Poan Neak Pean (or Neak Poan) ( km, ប្រាសាទនាគព័ន្ធ, "the entwined serpents") at Angkor, Cambodia is an artificial island with a Buddhist temple on a circular island in Jayatataka Baray, which was associated with Prea ...
is believed to have been the central temple for Khmer medicine during the Angkorian era.
Jayavarman VII Jayavarman VII, posthumous name of Mahaparamasaugata ( km, ជ័យវរ្ម័នទី៧, c. 1122–1218), was king of the Khmer Empire. He was the son of King Dharanindravarman II (r. 1150–1160) and Queen Sri Jayarajacudamani. He was ...
, who reigned c.1181–1218, ordered the construction of 102 hospitals ('halls devoid of disease' or ) throughout his realm. Khmer inscriptions investigated by French archeological researcher George Cœdès in the early 20th century, confirmed the existence of 15 hospitals (out of Jayavarman VII's 102 hospitals) across the kingdom. Those 15 hospitals are: Inscriptions in these hospitals describe the number of medical staff and their different roles such as hospital managers, drug combiner staff, water boiler staff, drug grinders and drug distributors. An inscription in Sai Fong has become the most renowned quote of King Jayavarman VII: ''"Diseases of the people make him more painful than his own illness."'' Prasat Chrey ( Khmer: ប្រាសាទជ្រៃ) and Prasat Lek 8 (Number 8 temple) ( Khmer: ប្រាសាទលេខ៨) are temples in
Sambor Prei Kuk Sambor Prei Kuk ( km, សំបូរព្រៃគុហ៍, ) is an archaeological site in Cambodia located in Kampong Thom Province, north of Kampong Thom, the provincial capital, east of Angkor and north of Phnom Penh. The now ruined c ...
that were previous hospital chapels during the
Chenla Chenla or Zhenla (; km, ចេនឡា, ; vi, Chân Lạp) is the Chinese designation for the successor polity of the kingdom of Funan preceding the Khmer Empire that existed from around the late sixth to the early ninth century in Indoc ...
era. Inside the hospital chapels, ground or smashed traditional herbal medicines extracted from plant trunks, roots and leaves were mixed with purified water. The drug liquid was then poured over a
Shiva Shiva (; sa, शिव, lit=The Auspicious One, Śiva ), also known as Mahadeva (; ɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐ, or Hara, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the Supreme Being in Shaivism, one of the major traditions within Hindu ...
Linga A lingam ( sa, लिङ्ग , lit. "sign, symbol or mark"), sometimes referred to as linga or Shiva linga, is an abstract or aniconic representation of the Hindu god Shiva in Shaivism. It is typically the primary ''murti'' or devotional im ...
to enhance the effectiveness, after which it flowed from the Linga base through the outside part of the chapels via a drainpipe connected to the north side of the buildings. Here, patients, who were waiting outside the hospital, finally received the drug liquid. The knowledge and practice of TKM was written down on
palm-leaf manuscripts Palm-leaf manuscripts are manuscripts made out of dried palm leaves. Palm leaves were used as writing materials in the Indian subcontinent and in Southeast Asia reportedly dating back to the 5th century BCE. Their use began in South Asia and sp ...
, written in the
pali Pali () is a Middle Indo-Aryan liturgical language native to the Indian subcontinent. It is widely studied because it is the language of the Buddhist ''Pāli Canon'' or ''Tipiṭaka'' as well as the sacred language of ''Theravāda'' Buddhism ...
language, and stored in temples all over the empire. Most of these original Khmer medicinal manuscripts are thought to have been destroyed in the Cambodian civil war, but some still exists and they represent some of the most reliable sources to the origins of TKM.See "''Cambodians and Their Doctors''", p.129-33. Surviving ancient Khmer medical texts shows a considerable systematization of medical knowledge, but an institutionalized Khmer medical system with associated doctrine-based practices, did not survive into the modern age in Cambodia. Scholars and historians have long wondered what happened to this grand medical tradition and the 13th century is considered a crucial tipping point in the history of traditional Khmer medicine. The gradual decline of the Angkorian Empire and the religious shifts to Theravada Buddhism appears to have affected the original medical culture greatly. The Siamese conquest of Angkor is not thought to have destroyed the medical traditions, but rather appropriated the medical knowledge and preserved it as
Thai Thai or THAI may refer to: * Of or from Thailand, a country in Southeast Asia ** Thai people, the dominant ethnic group of Thailand ** Thai language, a Tai-Kadai language spoken mainly in and around Thailand *** Thai script *** Thai (Unicode block ...
instead of Khmer. The French colonial era is also thought to have affected and prevented the rise of the ancient Khmer medical tradition. Unlike India for example, where dialogue and knowledge exchange between initial colonialists and Indian doctors took place, the colonial presence beginning with the 18th century in Cambodia was almost instantaneous and the French demanded and relied upon Western medicine from the very start, abolishing the local Cambodian medical traditions altogether. The following independence and warring upheaval of Cambodia during the civil war, the Khmer Rouge regime and the Vietnamese occupation, all continued this suppression of medical traditions, in particular the spiritual aspects. This centuries-long pressure fragmented the Khmer medical tradition, sometimes with local reinventions emerging. Historically, three sub-categorizations of the ''Kru Khmer'' profession have been noted: ''kru pet'' ( Khmer:គ្រូពេទ្យ), ''kru thnam'' and ''tmup''. ''Kru pet'' were the most revered and theoretically educated. They studied the palm-leaf manuscripts in temples and were mostly found around the royalty's residences and temples, less so among the general population. ''Kru thnam'', who were herbalists without much interest in religious aspects, were much more numerous and to be found throughout the country. ''Tmup'' were sorcerers. These general categorizations are still in use in Cambodia today, but the ''kru pet'' class is nonexistent.


Notable Kru Khmers

''Kru pet'' hermits have always been glorified and venerated in the Khmer culture for their kindness of saving human and animal lives. Statues were made to pay respect to ''kru pet'', like the hermit sculpture on
Phnom Santuk Phnom Santuk ( km, ភ្នំសន្ទុក) is a hill and cultural site in the Cambodian province of Kampong Thom. Located in Ko Koh village, Ko Koh commune, Santuk District, it is the most sacred mountain of the province. The summit i ...
mountain, and hermitages or temples dedicated to ''kru pet'' were built such as Maha Rusey ( Khmer: មហាឫសី) hermitage on
Phnom Da The ancient Kingdom of Funan, Funan sites of Angkor Borei ( km, អង្គរបុរី) and Phnom Da ( km, ភ្នំដា) are located in the Angkor Borei District, Takéo Province, of southern Cambodia.Khmer: ''សឹម្ហទត្ត'') was a royal doctor of King Rodravarman and
Jayavarman I Jayavarman I ( km, ជ័យវរ្ម័នទី១) is considered to be the last ruler of the united Chenla, the predecessor polity of the Khmer Empire. He ruled from approximately 657 until around 681. Over the course of his reign, and ...
during
Chenla Chenla or Zhenla (; km, ចេនឡា, ; vi, Chân Lạp) is the Chinese designation for the successor polity of the kingdom of Funan preceding the Khmer Empire that existed from around the late sixth to the early ninth century in Indoc ...
period. In addition, he was the royal official of King Bhavavarman I and Mahendravarman. At that time, he was the mayor of
Vyadhapura Vyadhapura ( km, វ្យាធបុរៈ Sanskrit: व्याधपूर ''Vyādhapūra'') was an ancient city of the Funan civilization, likely in what is now Ba Phnum District in the province of Prey Veng, Cambodia. It was the capital ...
also.
Yajnavaraha Yajnavaraha (10th century) was priest-doctor and a royal physician at the court of king Rajendravarman in Angkor, Cambodia, practising traditional Cambodian medicine and Ayurveda.Bynum, WF & Bynum, Helen (2006) ''Dictionary of Medical Biography''. G ...
was a religious ''Kru Khmer'' and royal physician of the Khmer Empire in the 10th century. Along with Khmer traditional medicine he also practiced
Ayurveda Ayurveda () is an alternative medicine system with historical roots in the Indian subcontinent. The theory and practice of Ayurveda is pseudoscientific. Ayurveda is heavily practiced in India and Nepal, where around 80% of the population repo ...
, an Indian traditional medicine system.


Centers and organizations

A Traditional Medicine Research Center was opened in Cambodia in 1982. In 1983, production of selected medicines began at the research center and a number of books on healing plants have been published. Specialists in Cambodian traditional medicine have been brought to the Faculty of Medicine for conferences and one of the faculty's goals is to introduce traditional medicine in all curricula at primary, secondary, and university levels. In 2009, the National School of Traditional Medicine opened in
Phnom Penh Phnom Penh (; km, ភ្នំពេញ, ) is the capital and most populous city of Cambodia. It has been the national capital since the French protectorate of Cambodia and has grown to become the nation's primate city and its economic, indus ...
. The school teaches and collects knowledge of traditional medicine in Cambodia, usually referred to as Khmer traditional medicine. The school has a special educational focus on
hygiene Hygiene is a series of practices performed to preserve health. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), "Hygiene refers to conditions and practices that help to maintain health and prevent the spread of diseases." Personal hygiene refer ...
and
anatomy Anatomy () is the branch of biology concerned with the study of the structure of organisms and their parts. Anatomy is a branch of natural science that deals with the structural organization of living things. It is an old science, having its ...
.


Laws and regulations

Regulation of
herbal medicines Herbal medicine (also herbalism) is the study of pharmacognosy and the use of medicinal plants, which are a basis of traditional medicine. With worldwide research into pharmacology, some herbal medicines have been translated into modern remedies ...
in Cambodia was introduced in 1998. Herbal medicines are regulated as over the counter medicines and for self medication only. By law, no claims may be made about herbal medicines. The regulatory requirements for manufacturing or safety assessment, and the control mechanisms established to ensure compliance, come under the Department of Drugs and Food. As of 2005, there are 48 registered herbal medicines in Cambodia; however, none of them are included on a national essential drug list. Herbal medicines in Cambodia are sold in pharmacies as over the counter medicines, in special outlets, by licensed practitioners and without restriction.


See also

* Khmer sastras * Health in Cambodia * Pharmacognosy *
Traditional Thai medicine Traditional Thai medicine is a system of methods and practices, such as herbal medicine, bodywork practices, and spiritual healing that is indigenous to the region currently known as Thailand. While not all Buddhist medicine is Thai, Thai medicine ...


Sources

* * * * Kent Maynard (2007): ''Medical Identities'', Berghahn Books * Journal of Complementary and Integrative Medicine (July 2010)
Traditional Cambodian Medicine
* The Nippon Foundation
Turning a Country of Land Mines into a Country of Medicine: A New Role for Traditional Herbalists in Cambodia
* Nomad Recherche et Soutien International (2011)
Traditional therapeutic knowledge of the Bunong People in North-eastern Cambodia: Healers, their practices and medicinal plants


References

{{Traditional Medicine Cambodian culture Southeast Asian traditional medicine Healthcare in Cambodia