Music of Central America

The music of Latin America refers to music originating from Latin America, namely the Romance-speaking regions of the Americas south of the United States. Latin American music also incorporates African music from enslaved African people who were transported from West and Central Africa to the Americas by European settlers, as well as music from the Indigenous peoples of the Americas. Due to its highly syncretic nature, Latin American music encompasses a wide variety of styles, including influential genres such as cumbia, bachata, bossa nova, merengue, rumba, salsa, samba, son, and tango. During the 20th century, many styles were influenced by the music of the United States giving rise to genres such as Latin pop, rock, jazz, hip hop, and reggaeton.

Geographically, it usually refers to the Spanish and Portuguese-speaking regions of Latin America, but sometimes includes Francophone countries and territories of the Caribbean and South America as well. It also encompasses Latin American styles that have originated in the United States such as salsa, New Mexico music, Tejano, various forms of country-Western, as well as Chicano rock, Nuyorican rap, and Chicano rap. The origins of Latin American music can be traced back to the Spanish and Portuguese conquest of the Americas in the 16th century, when the European settlers brought their music from overseas. Latin American music is performed in Spanish, Portuguese, and to a lesser extent, French.

Popular music styles by country and territory

Argentina

It is unclear on the birthplace of tango, though musicologists collectively agree that it most likely originated in Germany in 1860 as a form of religious music in organless churches. Argentinian writer Jorge Luis Borges believes the genre to have originated in brothels in the country, though editors of ''World Music: The Rough Guide'' (2000), called Borges' statement "a little presumptive". They pinpoint the early developments of tango to the porteño people in Buenos Aires, most likely at bars. Tango became an urban music scene, which was a result of a melting pot of European immigrants, criollos, blacks, and native populations. Tango is influenced by Andalusian flamenco, Spanish contradanse, southern Italian melodies, Cuban habanera, African candombe and percussion. German Polka music, polkas, Polish mazurkas, and Argentinie Guanchos Milonga (music), milonga. In its early history, tango music was associated with brawls at brothels and knife-wielding womanizing men. By 1914, men outnumbered women in Argentina by 100,000, leading to an increased rate of prostitution and the brothel lifestyle that came with it. Men would often dance at cafes and bars and try to outdo one another with improvised dance steps in an attempt to attract a woman.

Their dances were characterized by "showy yet threatening, predatory quality, often revolving around a possessive relationship between two men and one woman". In its original form, tango music included the violin, guitar, and flute. By the end of the 19th century, the bandoneon was introduced. One of the instrument's early pioneers, Eduardo Arolas, was called the "Tiger of the Bandoneon". Arolas believed the instrument was made to play in tango. Vicente Greco is credited with standardizing tango with his group, Orquesta Tipica Criolla, by using two violins and two bandoneons. The instrumentation of tango remained largely unchanged until the 1940s. Tango music began playing in populated areas such as fairgrounds and streets in Buenos Aires. It contained lyrics that were "sometimes obscene and deeply fatalistic". Similar to families in the United States during the rise of rock and roll, families in the area tried to shield their children from tango. Upper-classmen began taking an interest in tango, writer Ricardo Guiraldes performed tango during a tour of Europe in 1910 and has been credited with introducing tango in Europe. Guiraldes' introduction made tango the first Latin dance to gain popularity in Europe. Actor Rudolph Valentino performed the tango in his film ''The Four Horseman of the Apocalypse'' (1926), with Cinema of the United States, Hollywood taking advantage of "[Valentino's] charisma, the magnetism of tango, and the attraction they both had on a huge public".

Other styles of music in Argentina include the Chacarera, Milonga (music), Milonga, Zamba (artform), Zamba and Chamamé. Modern rhythms include Cuarteto (music from the Cordoba Province) and Nuevo tango, Electrotango. Argentine rock (known locally as ''rock nacional'') was most popular during the 1980s, and remains Argentina's most popular music. ''Rock en español'' was first popular in Argentina, then swept through other Hispanic American countries and Spain. The movement was known as the "Argentine Wave".

Bolivia

Bolivian music is perhaps the most strongly linked to its native population among the national styles of South America. After the nationalistic period of the 1950s Aymara ethnic group, Aymara and Quechua people, Quechuan culture became more widely accepted, and their folk music evolved into a more pop-like sound. Los Kjarkas played a pivotal role in this fusion. Other forms of native music (such as huayños and caporales) are also widely played. Cumbia is another popular genre. There are also lesser-known regional forms, such as the music from Santa Cruz and Tarija (where styles such as Cueca and Chacarera are popular).

Brazil

Brazil is a large, diverse country with a long history of popular-musical development, ranging from the early-20th-century innovation of samba to the modern ''Música popular brasileira''. Bossa nova is internationally well-known, and Forró (pronounced ) is also widely known and popular in Brazil. Lambada is influenced by rhythms like cumbia and merengue. Funk carioca is also a highly popular style.

Chile

Many musical genres are native to Chile; one of the most popular was the Chilean Romantic Cumbia, exemplified by artists such as Americo and Leo Rey. The Nueva Canción originated in the 1960s and 1970s and spread in popularity until the 1973 Chilean coup d'état, when most musicians were arrested, killed or exiled.

In Central Chile, several styles can be found: the Cueca (the national dance), the ''Tonada'', the ''Refalosa'', the ''Sajuriana'', the Zapateado (Mexico), Zapateado, the ''Cuando'' and the Vals Peruano (Waltz), Vals. In the Norte Grande, Chile, Norte Grande region traditional music resembles the music of southern Perú and western Bolivia, and is known as Andean music. This music, which reflects the spirit of the indigenous people of the Altiplano, was an inspiration for the Nueva canción.
The Chiloé Archipelago has unique folk-music styles, due to its isolation from the culture centres of Santiago.

Music from Easter Island, Chilean Polynesia, Rapa Nui music, is derived from Polynesian culture rather than colonial society or European influences.

Costa Rica

The music of Costa Rica is represented by musical expressions as parrandera, the Tambito, waltz, bolero, gang, calypso, chiquichiqui, mento the run and callera. They emerged from the migration processes and historical exchanges between indigenous, European and African. Typical instruments are the quijongo, marimba, ocarinas, low drawer, the Sabak, reed flutes, accordion, mandolin and guitar.

Cuba

Cuba has produced many musical genres, and a number of musicians in a variety of styles. Blended styles range from the danzón to the rumba.

Colombia

Colombian music can be divided into four musical zones: the Atlantic coast, the Pacific coast, the Andean region and Los Llanos.
The Atlantic music features rhythms such as the cumbia, porros and mapalé. Music from the Pacific coast such features rhythms such as the ''currulao'' —which is tinged with Spanish influence— and the Jota chocoana (along with many more afro-drum predominating music forms)—tinged with African and Aboriginal influence. Colombian Andean has been strongly influenced by Spanish rhythms and instruments, and differs noticeably from the indigenous music of Peru or Bolivia. Typical forms include the ''bambuco'', ''pasillo guabina'' and ''torbellino'', played with pianos and string instruments such as the ''tiple guitarra''. The music of Los Llanos, ''música llanera'', is usually accompanied by a harp, a ''cuatro'' (a type of four-string guitar) and maracas. It has much in common with the music of the Venezuelan Llanos.

Apart from these traditional forms, two newer musical styles have conquered large parts of the country: ''la salsa'', which has spread throughout the Pacific coast and the ''vallenato'', which originated in La Guajira and César (on the northern Caribbean coast). The latter is based on European accordion music. Merengue music is heard as well. More recently, musical styles such as reggaeton and bachata have also become popular.

Dominican Republic

Merengue típico and Merengue music, Orchestra merengue have been popular in the Dominican Republic for many decades, and is widely regarded as the national music. Bachata (music), Bachata is a more recent arrival, taking influences from the ''bolero'' and derived from the country's rural guitar music. Bachata has evolved and risen in popularity over the last 40 years in the Dominican Republic and other areas (such as Puerto Rico) with the help of artists such as Antony Santos, Luis Segura, Luis Vargas (musician), Luis Vargas, Teodoro Reyes, Yoskar Sarante, Alex Bueno, and Aventura (band), Aventura. Bachata, merengue and salsa are now equally popular among Spanish-speaking Caribbean people. When the Spanish ''conquistadors'' sailed across the Atlantic they brought with them a type of music known as ''hesparo'', which contributed to the development of Dominican music. A romantic style is also popular in the Dominican Republic from vocalists such as Angela Carrasco, Anthony Rios, Maridalia Hernandez and Olga Lara.

Ecuador

Traditional Ecuadorian music can be classified as mestizo, Indian and Afro-Ecuadorian music. Mestizo music evolved from the interrelation between Spanish and Indian music. It has rhythms such as ''pasacalles'', ''pasillos'', ''albazos'' and ''sanjuanitos'', and is usually played by stringed instruments. There are also regional variations: coastal styles, such as ''vals'' (similar to Vals Peruano (Waltz)) and ''montubio'' music (from the coastal hill country).

Indian music in Ecuador is determined in varying degrees by the influence of ''quichua'' culture. Within it are ''sanjuanitos'' (different from the ''mestizo sanjuanito''), ''capishkas'', ''danzantes'' and ''yaravis''. Non-''quichua'' indigenous music ranges from the Tsáchila music of Santo Domingo (influenced by the neighboring Afro-marimba) to the Amazonian music of groups such as the Shuar people, Shuar.

Black Ecuadorian music can be classified into two main forms. The first type is black music from the coastal Esmeraldas province, and is characterized by the marimba. The second variety is black music from the Chota Valley in the northern Sierra (primarily known as Bomba (Ecuador), Bomba del Chota), characterized by a more-pronounced mestizo and Indian influence than ''marimba esmeraldeña''. Most of these musical styles are also played by wind ensembles of varying sizes at popular festivals around the country. Like other Latin American countries, Ecuadorian music includes local exponents of international styles: from opera, salsa and rock to cumbia, thrash metal and jazz.

El Salvador

Salvadoran music may be compared with the Colombian culture, Colombian style of music known as ''cumbia''.
Popular styles in modern El Salvador (in addition to ''cumbia'') are salsa, Bachata (music), Bachata and Reggaeton. "Political chaos tore the country apart in the early 20th century, and music was often suppressed, especially those with strong native influences. In the 1940s, for example, it was decreed that a dance called "Xuc" was to be the "national dance" which was created and led by Paquito Palaviccini's and his ''Orquestra Internacional Polio''". In recent years reggaeton and hip hop have gained popularity, led by groups such as Pescozada and Mecate (band), Mecate. Salvadorian music has a musical style influenced by Maya peoples, Mayan music (played on the El Salvador-Guatemala border, in Chalatenango Department, Chalatenango). Another popular style of music not native to El Salvador is known as Punta (music), Punta, a Belizean, Guatemalan and Honduran style.

Some of the leading classical composers from El Salvador include Alex Panamá, Carlos Colón-Quintana, and German Cáceres.

French Guiana

Guatemala

Guatemala has a very long musical tradition.

Haiti

Haitian music combines a wide range of influences drawn from the many people who have settled on this Caribbean island. It reflects French, African rhythms, Spanish elements and others who have inhabited the island of Hispaniola and minor native Taino influences. Styles of music unique to the nation of Haiti include music derived from Haitian Vodou, Vodou ceremonial traditions, Rara parading music, Twoubadou ''ballads'', Mini-jazz rock bands, Rasin movement, Haitian hip hop, Hip hop Kreyòl, the wildly popular Compas, and Méringue as its basic rhythm.

Evolving in Haiti during the mid-1800s, the Haitian méringue (known as the ''mereng'' in Haitian Creole language, creole) is regarded as the oldest surviving form of its kind performed today and is its national symbol. According to Jean Fouchard, mereng evolved from the fusion of slave music genres (such as the ''chica'' and ''calenda'') with ballroom forms related to the French-Haitian contredanse (''kontradans'' in Haitian Creole language, creole). Mereng's name, he says, derives from the ''mouringue'' music of the Bara, a Bantu people of Madagascar. That few Malagasies came to the Americas casts doubt on this etymology, but it is significant because it emphasizes what Fouchard (and most Haitians) consider the African-derived nature of their music and national identity.

Very popular today is compas, short for ''compas direct'', a modern méringue made popular by Nemours Jean-Baptiste, on a recording released in 1955. The name derives from ''compás'', the Spanish word meaning rhythm or tones. It involves mostly medium-to-fast tempo beats with an emphasis on electric guitars, synthesizers, and either a solo alto saxophone, a horn section or the synthesizer equivalent. In Haitian Creole, Creole, it is spelled as ''konpa dirèk'' or simply ''konpa''. It is commonly spelled as it is pronounced as ''kompa''.

Honduras

The music of Honduras varies from Punta and Paranda (music), Paranda (the local genre of the Garifunas) to Caribbean music such as salsa, merengue, reggae and reggaeton (all widely heard, especially in the north). Mexican ranchera music has a large following in the rural interior of the country. The country's ancient capital of Comayagua is an important center for modern Honduran music, and is home to the College for Fine Arts.

Mexico

Mexico is perhaps one of the most musically diverse countries in the world. Each of its 31 states, its capital city and each of Mexico City's boroughs claim unique styles of music. The most representative genre is mariachi music. Although commonly misportrayed as Street performance, buskers, mariachis musicians play extremely technical, structured music or blends such as jarabe. Most mariachi music is sung in verses of prose poetry. Ranchera, Mexico's country music, differs from mariachi in that it is less technical and its lyrics are not sung in prose. Other regional music includes: ''son jarocho'', ''son huasteco'', ''cumbia sonidera'', Mexican pop music, Mexican pop, ''rock en español'', Mexican rock music, Mexican rock and ''canto nuevo''. There is also music based on sounds made by dancing (such as the ''Zapateado (Mexico), zapateada'').

Northeastern Mexico is home to another popular style called ''Norteño (music), norteña'', which assimilates Mexican ''ranchera'' with cumbia, Colombian ''cumbia'' and is typically played with Bavarian accordions and Bohemian polka influence. Variations of ''norteña'' include ''duranguense'', ''Banda (music), tambora sinaloense'', ''corridos'' and nortec (norteño-techno). The eastern part of the country makes heavy use of the Arpa jarocha, harp, typical of the ''son arocho'' style. The music in southern Mexico is particularly represented by its use of the marimba, which has its origins in the Soconusco region between Mexico and Guatemala.

The north-central states have recently spawned a Tecktonik-style music, combining Electro music, electro and other dance genres with more traditional music. Salsa (music) has also played an important role in Mexican music shown by Sonora Santanera. Currently, Reggaeton is very popular in modern Mexico.

Martinique and Guadeloupe

Nicaragua

The most popular style of music in Nicaragua is ''palo de Mayo'', which is both a type of dance music and a festival where the dance (and music) originated. Other popular music includes marimba, folklore, ''son nica'', folk music, ''merengue'', ''bachata'' and salsa.

Panama

The music of Panama is the result of the mestizaje, It has occurred during the last five hundred years between the Iberian traditions, especially those of Andalusia, American Indians and those of West Africa. Mestizaje that has been enriched by cultural exchange caused by several waves of migrations originating in Europe, in various parts of the Caribbean (mostly Barbados, Trinidad, Jamaica and Saint Lucia) in Asia and several points in South and North America. These migrations were due to the Spanish colonization of America, which was forced to use the Royal Route of Panama as an inter-oceanic trade route, which included the slave trade (an institution abolished in Panama in 1851); To the traffic, product of the exploitation of the silver mines in the Viceroyalty of Peru during centuries XVI and XVII; To the legendary riches of the Fair of Portobelo, between centuries XVII and XVIII; To the construction of the Transísmico Railroad, begun in 1850, and the Interoceanic Canal, initiated by France in 1879, concluded by the United States in 1914 and expanded by Panama from 2007.

With this rich cultural heritage, Panama has contributed significantly to the development of Cumbia, Decima, Panamanian saloma, Pasillo, Panamanian bunde, bullerengue, Punto music, Punto Music, Tamborito, Mejoranera, Mejorana, Panamanian Murga, Tamborera (Examples: Guarare and Tambor de la Alegria), bolero, jazz, Salsa, reggae and calypso, through composers like Nicolas Aceves Núñez (hall, cumbia, tamborito, Pasillo), Luis Russell (jazz), Ricardo Fábrega (bolero and Tamborera), José Luis Rodríguez Vélez (cumbia and bolero), Arturo "Chino" Hassan (bolero), Nando Boom (reggae), Lord Cobra (calypso), Rubén Blades (salsa), Danilo Pérez (jazz), Vicente Gómez Gudiño (Pasillo), César Alcedo, among many others.

Paraguay

Paraguayan music depends largely upon two instruments: the guitar and the harp, which were brought by the conquistadors and found their own voices in the country. Polka Paraguaya, which adopted its name from the European dance, is the most popular type of music and has different versions (including the ''galopa'', the ''krye’ÿ'' and the ''canción Paraguaya'', or "Paraguayan song"). The first two are faster and more upbeat than a standard polka; the third is a bit slower and slightly melancholy. Other popular styles include the ''purahéi jahe’o'' and the ''compuesto'' (which tell sad, epic or love stories). The polka is usually based on poetic lyrics, but there are some emblematic pieces of Paraguayan music (such as ''"Pájaro Campana"'', or "Songbird", by Félix Pérez Cardozo).

Guarania is the second-best-known Paraguayan musical style, and was created by musician José Asunción Flores in 1925.

Peru

Peruvian music is made up of indigenous, Spanish and West African influences. Coastal Afro-Peruvian music is characterized by the use of the ''Cajón, cajón peruano''. Indigenous peoples of the Americas, Amerindian music varies according to region and ethnicity. The best-known Indigenous peoples of the Americas, Amerindian style is the ''huayno'' (also popular in Bolivia), played on instruments such as the charango and guitar. Mestizo music is varied and includes popular ''valses'' and ''marinera'' from the northern coast.

Puerto Rico

The history of music on the island of Puerto Rico begins with its original inhabitants, the Taínos. The Taíno Indians have influenced the Puerto Rican culture greatly, leaving behind important contributions such as their musical instruments, language, food, plant medicine and art. The heart of much Puerto Rican music is the idea of improvisation in both the music and the lyrics. A performance takes on an added dimension when the audience can anticipate the response of one performer to a difficult passage of music or clever lyrics created by another. When two singers, either both men or a man and a woman, engage in vocal competition in música jíbara this is a special type of seis called a ''controversia''. Of all Puerto Rico's musical exports, the best-known is reggaeton. ''Bomba (Puerto Rico), Bomba'' and ''plena'' have long been popular, while reggaetón is a relatively recent invention.

It is a form of urban contemporary music, often combining other Latin musical styles, Caribbean and West Indies music, (such as reggae, ''soca'', Spanish reggae, salsa, merengue and ''bachata (music), bachata''.
. Raquel Z. Rivera. 2009. ''Reggaeton''. "Part I. Mapping Reggaeton". From Música Negra to Reggaeton Latino: Wayne Marshall. "Part II. The Panamanian Connection". Placing Panama in the Reggaeton Narrative: Editor's Notes / Wayne Marshall. Duke University Press, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina. It originates from Panamanian Spanish reggae and Jamaican dancehall, however received its rise to popularity through Puerto Rico.''Tropikeo'' is the fusion of R&B, Rap, Hip Hop, Funk and Techno Music within a Tropical musical frame of salsa, in which the conga drums and/or timbales drums are the main source of rhythm of the tune, in conjunction with a heavy salsa "montuno" of the piano. The lyrics of the song can be rapped or sung, or used combining both styles, as well as danced in both styles. ''Aguinaldo'' from Puerto Rico is similar to Christmas carols, except that they are usually sung in a parranda, which is rather like a lively parade that moves from house to house in a neighborhood, looking for holiday food and drink. The melodies were subsequently used for the improvisational décima and seis. There are aguinaldos that are usually sung in churches or religious services, while there are aguinaldos that are more popular and are sung in the parrandas. Danza is a very sophisticated form of music that can be extremely varied in its expression; they can be either romantic or festive. Romantic danzas have four sections, beginning with an eight measure paseo followed by three themes of sixteen measures each. The third theme typically includes a solo by the bombardino and, often, a return to the first theme or a coda at the end. Festive danzas are free-form, with the only rules being an introduction and a swift rhythm. Plena is a narrative song from the coastal regions of Puerto Rico, especially around Ponce, Puerto Rico. Its origins have been various claimed as far back as 1875 and as late as 1920. As rural farmers moved to San Juan, Puerto Rico and other cities, they brought plena with them and eventually added horns and improvised call and response vocals. Lyrics generally deal with stories or current events, though some are light-hearted or humorous.

Venezuela

''The Joropo'' is Venezuelan popular music originating in the ''llanos'' plains, although a more upbeat and festive ''Gaita Zuliana, gaita'' version is heard western Venezuela (particularly in Zulia State). There are also African-influenced styles which emphasize drumming including multiple rhythms, such as sangueo, fulia, parranda, tamborera and calypso from the Guayana region (influenced by neighboring English-speaking countries). The Aguinaldo, conforms the national representation of the Venezuelan Christmas. In the east, the malagueña, punto and galerón accompanies the velorios de cruz de mayo, (religious tradition, that is celebrated on 3 May in honor to the Christian cross). In the Venezuelan Andes, the Venezuelan bambuco is a local variation of the bambuco. Other forms include the polo and the Venezuelan waltz. El merengue venezolano es una música bailable del siglo XX de Venezuela, con un característico ritmo atractivo. Es un género completamente diferente del merengue de la República Dominicana en cuanto a su ritmo, instrumentos, cultura e historia.

Venezuelan Merengue is also known by two other names: merengue caraqueño, relating its origin to the capital Caracas, and merengue rucaneao, in which reference to Rúcano, a mixture for a popular jelly dessert, is used as a simile for the sensual pelvic movements of its dance. Merengue came into vogue in Venezuela during the period from the 1920s to the 1940s. At first, merengue music was associated with the mabiles, popular drinking and dancing spots in Caracas, and with the capital's carnival celebrations in street parades and plazas. Later in the 1940s, it was absorbed into the dance halls of the upper classes, and also formed part of the repertoire of smaller groups such as the Cantores del Trópico, led by guitarist Antonio Lauro (who composed 'Merengue para guitarra') and composers such as Eduardo Serrano. The hybrid traditional ensembles of then and now that dedicate their program to folkloric program to arrangements of Venezuelan folk music - ensembles such as estudiantinas, Venezuelan Merengue. Nowadays it is always discussed whether merengue is written in 2/4, 6/8 or 5/8.

Uruguay

Uruguayan music has similar roots to that of Argentina. Uruguayan tango and ''milonga (music), milonga'' are both popular styles, and folk music from along the Río de la Plata, River Plate is indistinguishable from its Argentine counterpart. Uruguay rock and ''cancion popular'' (Uruguayan versions of rock and pop music) are popular local forms. ''Candombe'', a style of drumming descended from African slaves in the area, is quintessentially Uruguayan (although it is played to a lesser extent in Argentina).In a Nutshell: Candombe, R. Slate
Sounds and Colours
/ref> It is most popular in Montevideo, but may also be heard in a number of other cities.

Popular styles

Nueva canción

Salsa

Based on Cuban music in rhythm, tempo, bass line, riffs and instrumentation, Salsa represents an amalgamation of musical styles including rock, jazz, and other Latin American musical traditions. Modern salsa (as it became known worldwide) was forged in the pan-Latin melting pot of New York City in the late 1960s and early 1970s.

Latin trap

Latin trap has become famous around 2015. It has influences of American trap and reggaeton music.

Reggaetón

Reggaeton (also known as reggaetón and reguetón[1]) is a musical genre which originated in Puerto Rico during the late 1990s. It is influenced by hip hop and Latin American and Caribbean music. Vocals include rapping and singing, typically in Spanish.

Latin ballad

The Latin (or romantic) ballad is a Latin musical genre which originated in the 1960s. This ballad is very popular in Hispanic America and Spain, and is characterized by a sensitive rhythm. A descendant of the ''bolero'', it has several variants (such as balls and ''cumbia''). Since the mid-20th century a number of artists have popularized the genre, such as Julio Iglesias, Luis Miguel, Enrique Iglesias, Alejandra Ávalos, Cristian Castro, Franco de Vita and José José.

See also

*Criollo people#Criollo culture, Music and society in the Spanish Colonial Americas
*Opera in Latin America

References

Further reading

*Brill, Mark. Music of Latin America and the Caribbean, 2nd Edition, 2018. Taylor & Francis
*
*
* Sévigny, Jean-Pierre. ''Sierra Norteña: the Influence of Latin Music on the French-Canadian Popular Song and Dance Scene, Especially as Reflected in the Career of Alys Robi and the Pedagogy of Maurice Lacasse-Morenoff''. Montréal: Productions Juke-Box, 1994. 13 p. ''N.B''. Published text of a paper prepared for, and presented on, on 12 March 1994, the conference, ''Popular Music Music & Identity'' (Montréal, Qué., 12–13 March 1994), under the auspices of the Canadian Branch of the International Association for the Study of Popular Music.
*, cited in Nettl, p. 163.
*Boieras, Gabriel.; Cattani, Luciana. Maravilhas do Brasil: festas populares. Escrituras Editora, 2006. pp. 108.
* Mularski, Jedrek. ''Music, Politics, and Nationalism in Latin America: Chile During the Cold War Era''. Cambria Press, 2014. .
*

External links

Latin American Music
on the Open Directory Project
Latin American Music and Culture MagazineDiaz-Ayala Cuban and Latin American Music Collection

The Strachwitz Frontera Collection of Mexican and Mexican American Recordings

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Latin American music,
Latin American styles of music
Spanish-language music
Lusophone music
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