History of Hawaii
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The history of Hawaii describes the era of human settlements in the
Hawaiian Islands The Hawaiian Islands ( haw, Nā Mokupuni o Hawai‘i) are an archipelago of eight major islands, several atolls, and numerous smaller islets in the North Pacific Ocean, extending some from the island of Hawaii in the south to northernmost ...
. The islands were first settled by
Polynesians Polynesians form an ethnolinguistic group of closely related people who are native to Polynesia (islands in the Polynesian Triangle), an expansive region of Oceania in the Pacific Ocean. They trace their early prehistoric origins to Island Sou ...
sometime between 124 and 1120 AD. Hawaiian civilization was isolated from the rest of the world for at least 500 years. An expedition led by
British British may refer to: Peoples, culture, and language * British people, nationals or natives of the United Kingdom, British Overseas Territories, and Crown Dependencies. ** Britishness, the British identity and common culture * British English, ...
explorer
James Cook James Cook (7 November 1728 Old Style date: 27 October – 14 February 1779) was a British explorer, navigator, cartographer, and captain in the British Royal Navy, famous for his three voyages between 1768 and 1779 in the Pacific Ocean and ...
is usually considered to be the first group of
Europeans Europeans are the focus of European ethnology, the field of anthropology related to the various ethnic groups that reside in the states of Europe. Groups may be defined by common genetic ancestry, common language, or both. Pan and Pfeil (20 ...
to arrive in the Hawaiian Islands, which they did in 1778. However, Spanish historians and some other researchers state that the Spanish captain
Ruy López de Villalobos Ruy López de Villalobos (; ca. 1500 – April 4, 1546) was a Spanish explorer who sailed the Pacific from Mexico to establish a permanent foothold for Spain in the East Indies, which was near the Line of Demarcation between Spain and Portugal a ...
was the first European to see the islands in 1542. The Spanish named these islands "Isla de Mesa, de los Monjes y Desgraciada" (1542), being on the route linking the Philippines with Mexico across the
Pacific Ocean The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of Earth's five oceanic divisions. It extends from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Southern Ocean (or, depending on definition, to Antarctica) in the south, and is bounded by the conti ...
, between the ports of Acapulco and Manila, which were both part of New Spain. Within five years after Cook's arrival, European military technology helped
Kamehameha I Kamehameha I (; Kalani Paiea Wohi o Kaleikini Kealiikui Kamehameha o Iolani i Kaiwikapu kaui Ka Liholiho Kūnuiākea;  – May 8 or 14, 1819), also known as Kamehameha the Great, was the conqueror and first ruler of the Kingdom of Hawaii. Th ...
, ruler of the island of Hawaii, conquer and unify the islands for the first time, establishing the
Kingdom of Hawaii The Hawaiian Kingdom, or Kingdom of Hawaiʻi ( Hawaiian: ''Ko Hawaiʻi Pae ʻĀina''), was a sovereign state located in the Hawaiian Islands. The country was formed in 1795, when the warrior chief Kamehameha the Great, of the independent islan ...
in 1795. The kingdom was prosperous and important for its agriculture and strategic location in the Pacific.
American American(s) may refer to: * American, something of, from, or related to the United States of America, commonly known as the "United States" or "America" ** Americans, citizens and nationals of the United States of America ** American ancestry, pe ...
immigration, led by Protestant
missionaries A missionary is a member of a religious group which is sent into an area in order to promote its faith or provide services to people, such as education, literacy, social justice, health care, and economic development.Thomas Hale 'On Being a Mi ...
, and Native Hawaiian outmigration, mostly on whaling ships, began almost immediately after Cook's arrival. Americans set up plantations to grow sugar. Their methods of plantation farming required substantial labor. Waves of permanent immigrants came from Japan, China, and the Philippines to work in the fields. The government of Japan organized and gave special protection to its people, who comprised about 25 percent of the Hawaiian population by 1896. The Hawaiian monarchy encouraged this multi-ethnic society, initially establishing a constitutional monarchy in 1840 that promised equal voting rights regardless of race, gender, or wealth. The population of Native Hawaiians in Hawaii declined from an unknown number prior to 1778 (commonly estimated to be around 300,000), to around 142,000 in the 1820s based on the first census conducted by American missionaries, 82,203 in the 1850 Hawaiian Kingdom census, 40,622 in the last Hawaiian Kingdom census of 1890, 39,504 in the only census by the Republic of Hawaii in 1896, and 37,656 in the first census conducted by the United States in 1900 after the annexation of Hawaii to the United States in 1898. Since Hawaii has joined the United States the Native Hawaiian population in Hawaii has increased with every census to 289,970 in 2010. Americans within the kingdom government rewrote the constitution, severely curtailing the power of King "David" Kalākaua, and disenfranchising the rights of most
Native Hawaiians Native Hawaiians (also known as Indigenous Hawaiians, Kānaka Maoli, Aboriginal Hawaiians, First Hawaiians, or simply Hawaiians) ( haw, kānaka, , , and ), are the indigenous ethnic group of Polynesian people of the Hawaiian Islands. Hawa ...
and Asian citizens to vote, through excessively high property and income requirements. This gave a sizeable advantage to plantation owners. Queen Liliʻuokalani attempted to restore royal powers in 1893 but was placed under
house arrest In justice and law, house arrest (also called home confinement, home detention, or, in modern times, electronic monitoring) is a measure by which a person is confined by the authorities to their residence. Travel is usually restricted, if al ...
by businessmen with help from the
United States military The United States Armed Forces are the military forces of the United States. The armed forces consists of six service branches: the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, Space Force, and Coast Guard. The president of the United States is ...
. Against the Queen's wishes, the
Republic of Hawaii The Republic of Hawaii ( Hawaiian: ''Lepupalika o Hawaii'') was a short-lived one-party state in Hawaii between July 4, 1894, when the Provisional Government of Hawaii had ended, and August 12, 1898, when it became annexed by the United State ...
was formed for a short time. This government agreed on behalf of Hawaii to join the
United States The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country Continental United States, primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 U.S. state, states, a Washington, D.C., ...
in 1898 as the
Territory of Hawaii The Territory of Hawaii or Hawaii Territory ( Hawaiian: ''Panalāʻau o Hawaiʻi'') was an organized incorporated territory of the United States that existed from April 30, 1900, until August 21, 1959, when most of its territory, excluding ...
. In 1959, the islands became the
state State may refer to: Arts, entertainment, and media Literature * ''State Magazine'', a monthly magazine published by the U.S. Department of State * ''The State'' (newspaper), a daily newspaper in Columbia, South Carolina, United States * ''Our S ...
of
Hawaii Hawaii ( ; haw, Hawaii or ) is a state in the Western United States, located in the Pacific Ocean about from the U.S. mainland. It is the only U.S. state outside North America, the only state that is an archipelago, and the only stat ...
.


Ancient Hawaii


Discovery and settlement

The date of the first settlements of the Hawaiian Islands is a topic of continuing debate. Patrick Vinton Kirch's books on Hawaiian archeology, standard textbooks, date the first Polynesian settlements to about 300, with more recent suggestions by Kirch as late as 600. Other theories suggest dates as late as 700 to 800. The most recent survey of carbon-dating evidence puts the arrival of the first settlers at around A.D. 940–1130. The history of the ancient
Polynesians Polynesians form an ethnolinguistic group of closely related people who are native to Polynesia (islands in the Polynesian Triangle), an expansive region of Oceania in the Pacific Ocean. They trace their early prehistoric origins to Island Sou ...
was passed down through
genealogy Genealogy () is the study of families, family history, and the tracing of their lineages. Genealogists use oral interviews, historical records, genetic analysis, and other records to obtain information about a family and to demonstrate kin ...
chants that were recited at formal and family functions. The genealogy of the high chiefs could be traced back to the period believed to be inhabited only by gods. The ''pua aliʻi'' ("flower of royalty") were considered to be living gods. By about 1000, settlements founded along the perimeters of the islands were beginning to cultivate food in gardens. A Tahitian priest named Pā‘ao is said to have brought a new order to the islands around 1200. The new order included new laws and a new social structure that separated the people into classes. The ''aliʻi nui'' was the king, with his ''ʻaha kuhina'' just below them. The ''
aliʻi The aliʻi were the traditional nobility of the Hawaiian islands. They were part of a hereditary line of rulers, the ''noho aliʻi''. The word ''aliʻi'' has a similar meaning in the Samoan language and other Polynesian languages, and in Māori ...
'' were the royal nobles with the ''
kahuna ''Kahuna'' is a Hawaiian language, Hawaiian word that refers to an expert in any field. Historically, it has been used to refer to doctors, surgeons and dentists, as well as priests, ministers, and sorcerers. Background A ''kahuna'' may be ver ...
'' (high priest) below them, the ''makaʻāinana'' (commoners) next with the ''kauā'' below them as the lowest ranking social caste. The rulers of the Hawaiian islands (''noho aliʻi o ko Hawaiʻi Pae ʻAina'') are a line of Native Hawaiians who were independent rulers of various subdivisions of the islands of Hawaii. Their genealogy is traced to Hānalaʻanui and others. The ''aliʻi nui'' were responsible for making sure the people observed a strict '' kapu'' (a code of conduct relating to
taboo A taboo or tabu is a social group's ban, prohibition, or avoidance of something (usually an utterance or behavior) based on the group's sense that it is excessively repulsive, sacred, or allowed only for certain persons.''Encyclopædia Britannica ...
s). The system had rules regarding many aspects of Hawaiian social order, fishing rights and even where women could eat. After the death of Kamehameha I, the system was abolished, and the
Hawaiian religion Hawaiian religion refers to the indigenous religious beliefs and practices of native Hawaiians, also known as the kapu system. Hawaiian religion is based largely on the tapu religion common in Polynesia and likely originated among the Tahitia ...
soon fell as the gods were abandoned. By 1500 Hawaiians began to spread to the interiors of the islands and religion was more emphasized. Prior to conquest by Kamehameha I, the islands did not have a single name, as each island was ruled as separate kingdoms known only by the island names. The first recorded names of the island by Captain Cook reflect this fact. Kamehameha I, as ruler of the island of Hawaii, imposed the name "Hawaii" on the islands.


Religion

There were atheists, known as 'aia, in Hawaii. However, the dominant religion in Hawaii, similar to many other Polynesian societies, was the kapu or taboo religion, which has a theology, ritual and a code of conduct. There are many
gods A deity or god is a supernatural being who is considered divine or sacred. The ''Oxford Dictionary of English'' defines deity as a god or goddess, or anything revered as divine. C. Scott Littleton defines a deity as "a being with powers greater ...
and
hero A hero (feminine: heroine) is a real person or a main fictional character who, in the face of danger, combats adversity through feats of ingenuity, courage, or strength. Like other formerly gender-specific terms (like ''actor''), ''her ...
es with many different people worshiping different gods in different ways. In one tradition, Wākea, the Sky Father, wed
Papahānaumoku In the religion and mythology of the ancient Hawaiians, Papahānaumoku (pronunciation: ɑːpɑːˈhɑːnaʊmoʊku — often simply called Papa — is a goddess and the Earth Mother. She is mentioned in the chants as the consort of the sky god ...
, the Earth Mother. From their union came all others, including the other gods. In another traditional genealogy named Pu-anue, Kumukumu-ke-kaa and her husband Paia-a-ka-lani were the mother and father of the earth and heavens. Another genealogy declares that Ka-mai-eli and Kumu-honua were the mother and father. The kapu religion in Hawaii was
polytheistic Polytheism is the belief in multiple deities, which are usually assembled into a pantheon of gods and goddesses, along with their own religious sects and rituals. Polytheism is a type of theism. Within theism, it contrasts with monotheism, the ...
, with four deities most prominent:
Kāne In Hawaiian mythology, Kāne is considered the highest of the three major Hawaiian deities, along with Kū and Lono. He represented the god of procreation and was worshipped as ancestor of chiefs and commoners. Kāne is the creator and gives l ...
,
Kū In Hawaiian religion, Kū is one of the four great gods. The other three are Kanaloa, Kāne, and Lono. Some feathered god images or ''akua hulu manu'' are considered to represent Kū. Kū is worshiped under many names, including Kū-ka-ili-moku ( ...
,
Lono In Hawaiian religion, the god Lono is associated with fertility, agriculture, rainfall, music and peace. In one of the many Hawaiian stories of Lono, he is a fertility and music god who descended to Earth on a rainbow to marry Laka. In agricultu ...
and
Kanaloa In the traditions of ancient Hawaii, Kanaloa is a god symbolized by the squid or by the octopus, and is typically associated with Kāne. It is also an alternative name for the island of Kahoolawe. In legends and chants, Kāne and Kanaloa are p ...
. Other notable deities include
Laka In Hawaiian mythology, Laka is the name of two different popular heroes from Polynesian mythology. (In other parts of Polynesia they are known as Rātā, Rata, Lata, Ata, or Lasa). In one Hawaiian legend, Laka is the son of the '' Ali'i nui'' ...
, Kihawahine,
Haumea , discoverer = , discovered = , earliest_precovery_date = March 22, 1955 , mpc_name = (136108) Haumea , pronounced = , adjectives = Haumean , note = yes , alt_names = , named_after = Haumea , mp_category = , orbit_ref = , epoc ...
,
Papahānaumoku In the religion and mythology of the ancient Hawaiians, Papahānaumoku (pronunciation: ɑːpɑːˈhɑːnaʊmoʊku — often simply called Papa — is a goddess and the Earth Mother. She is mentioned in the chants as the consort of the sky god ...
, and, most famously, Pele. In addition, each family is considered to have one or more guardian spirits or family gods known as ʻaumakua to protect them. One such god is Iolani, the god of alii families. One breakdown of the Kapu
pantheon Pantheon may refer to: * Pantheon (religion), a set of gods belonging to a particular religion or tradition, and a temple or sacred building Arts and entertainment Comics *Pantheon (Marvel Comics), a fictional organization * ''Pantheon'' (Lone St ...
in Hawaii consists of the following groups: * four major gods (''ka hā) – Kū, Kāne, Lono, Kanaloa * forty male gods or aspects of Kāne (''ke kanahā'') * four hundred gods and goddesses (''ka lau'') * a multitude of gods and goddesses (''ke kini akua'') * spirits (''na unihipili'') * guardians (''na aumākua'') Another breakdown consists of three major groups: * four gods, or ''akua'': Kū, Kāne, Lono, Kanaloa * many lesser gods, or ''kupua'', each associated with certain professions * guardian spirits, ''aumakua'', associated with particular families


Liloa, Hākau and ʻUmi a Līloa


Liloa

Līloa was a legendary ruler of the island of
Hawaii Hawaii ( ; haw, Hawaii or ) is a state in the Western United States, located in the Pacific Ocean about from the U.S. mainland. It is the only U.S. state outside North America, the only state that is an archipelago, and the only stat ...
in the late 15th century. His royal compound was in Waipiʻo Valley. His line is traced to Hawaiian "creation". Līloa had two sons; his firstborn Hākau from his wife Pinea, (his mother's sister), and his second son, ʻUmi a Līloa from his lesser ranking wife, Akahi a Kuleana. Upon his death, elevated Hākau as ruler and delegated religious authority to ʻUmi. Akahi a Kuleana was of a lesser line of chiefs who Liloa had fallen in love with when he discovered her bathing in a river. The couple met when Liloa was visiting
Hamakua Hāmākua is a district on the northeast coast of Hawaii's Big Island, administered by the County of Hawaii in the state of Hawaii. It is also the name given for the coastline in the region, the "Hāmākua Coast". Description Hāmākua's coast ...
. He claimed his right to her as King and she accepted.
Liloa's Kāʻei Līloa's Kāʻei ''(Liloa's Sash)'' or Kāʻei Kapu o Liloa ''(the sacred sash of Līloa)'' is the sacred feathered sash of Līloa, king of the Big Island of Hawaiʻi. The Statue of Kamehameha the Great, commissioned by King Kalākaua, displaye ...
is his sacred feathered sash, now kept at the Bishop Museum. _Līloa's_mother,_Waioloa,_his_grandmother,_Neʻula_and_great_grandmother,_Laʻa_kapu_were_of_the_ ʻEwa_Beach,_Hawaii, ʻEwa_aliʻi_lines_of_
Oahu Oahu () ( Hawaiian: ''Oʻahu'' ()), also known as "The Gathering Place", is the third-largest of the Hawaiian Islands. It is home to roughly one million people—over two-thirds of the population of the U.S. state of Hawaii. The island of O ...
._Liloa's_father_ruled_Hawaii_as_''aliʻi_nui''_and_upon_his_death_elevated_Līloa._Kiha_had_had_four_other_sons,_Kaunuamoa,_Makaoku,_Kepailiula_and_Hoolana,_whose_descendants_are_the_Kaiakea_family_of_
Molokai Molokai , or Molokai (), is the fifth most populated of the eight major islands that make up the Hawaiian Islands archipelago in the middle of the Pacific Ocean. It is 38 by 10 miles (61 by 16 km) at its greatest length and width with a us ...
,_distant_relatives_of_ Abraham_Fornander's_daughter. In_his_book,_
David_Malo David Malo or Davida Malo (1795–1853) was a chiefly counselor, a Hawaiian intellectual, educator, politician and minister. He is remembered by subsequent generations of Hawaiian people and scholars primarily as a Native Hawaiian historian of the ...
_described_how_Liloa_originated_the_practice_of_''moe_āikane'',_the_sexual_relationship_between_males._The_relationships_had_no_social_stigma_and_were_accepted_practice_beginning_with_the_alii_and_then_copied_by_the_other_classes._Warriors_engaged_in_the_practice._The_relationships_cannot_be_defined_as_
bisexuality Bisexuality is a romantic or sexual attraction or behavior toward both males and females, or to more than one gender. It may also be defined to include romantic or sexual attraction to people regardless of their sex or gender identity, ...
._In_many_cases,_the_men_involved_felt_it_an_honor_and_responsibility_to_honor_their_''hana_lawelawe''.


__Hākau_

Just_before_his_death,_Liloa_bestowed_on_Hākau_the_succession_as_Chief,_telling_Umi_that_he_was_to_serve_as_his_"man"_(Prime_Minister)_and_that_both_were_to_respect_the_other_and_should_either_have_issue_with_the_other_it_would_be_for_them_to_decide._At_first_a_decent_king,_Hākau_soon_became_brutal._To_avoid_his_brother's_anger,_'Umi_exiled_himself_to_another_district. Hākau_refused_to_help_Nunu_and_Ka-hohe,_his_father's_two_favorite,_ailing_Kahuna_who_had_requested_food._This_was_considered_highly_insulting._The_two_were_of_the_priestly_class_of_the_god_Lono_ In_Hawaiian_religion,_the_god_Lono_is_associated_with_fertility,_agriculture,_rainfall,_music_and_peace._In_one_of_the_many_Hawaiian_stories_of_Lono,_he_is_a_fertility_and_music_god_who_descended_to_Earth_on_a_rainbow_to_marry_Laka._In_agricultu_...
._They_resented_their_treatment_and_plotted_to_see_the_kingdom_in_someone_else's_hand._Hākau_did_not_believe_the_priests_to_have_any_power_and_disrespected_them_as_'Umi_was_the_spiritual_authority_This_was_a_period_in_when_no_King_could_defy_a_Kahuna._Many_had_a_royal_bloodline,_land_and_could_leave_their_temples_as_warriors_when_needed,_but_could_never_relinquish_their_spiritual_responsibilities._Through_a_messenger_of_Kaoleioku,_of_Waipunalei,_the_high-priest_of_the_temple_of_Manini,_at_Koholalele_the_two_priests_contacted_Umi's_court._The_two_priests_traveled_to_Waipunalei_where_they_supported_Umi's_revolt. When_Hākau_received_news_that_his_brother_was_preparing_to_war_against_him,_he_sent_his_main_forces_out_to_immediately_prepare_by_seeking_feathers_to_adorn_their_war_regalia._After_the_warriors_had_left_and_Hākau_was_undefended,_Umi's_warriors_came_forward_with_a_deception_that_they_were_there_with_bundles_of_offerings_for_the_king._When_the_bundles_were_dropped_to_the_ground_they_were_filled_with_rocks_they_used_to_stone_Hākau_to_death.


__ʻUmi-a-Līloa_

ʻUmi-a-Līloa_was_a_ruling_''aliʻi_ai_moku''_(district_high_chief_of_Hawai'i)._He_became_chief_after_the_death_of_his_half_brother_Hākau_and_was_considered_a_just_ruler,_religious_and_the_first_to_unite_almost_all_of_the_ Big_Island._The_legend_of_ʻUmi-a-Līloa_is_one_of_the_most_popular_hero_sagas_in_Hawaiian_history. ʻUmi's_wife_was_
Princess Princess is a regal rank and the feminine equivalent of prince (from Latin '' princeps'', meaning principal citizen). Most often, the term has been used for the consort of a prince, or for the daughter of a king or prince. Princess as a subs ...
_
Piʻikea Piʻikea (Hawaiian: ''piʻi'' = "to ascend", ''ke'' = "the", ''ea'' = "life"; "the life ascends") was a High Chiefess. She was a daughter of Piʻilani and Queen La’ieloheloheikawai and sister of Lono-a-Piilani and Kiha-a-Piilani. Piʻilani built ...
,_daughter_of_ Piʻilani._They_had_one_son,_
Kumalae Kumalae was a Hawaiian High Chief, ''Aliʻi Nui'' (ruler) of Hilo. He is also known as Kumalae-nui-a-ʻUmi ("Kumalae the Great, son of ʻUmi"). Family He was born about 1648. His father was ʻUmi-a-Liloa, ''Aliʻi Aimoku'' of Hawaiʻi. His mo ...
_and_one_daughter,_Aihākōkō. Liloa_told_Akahi_that,_if_she_were_to_have_a_male_child,_she_should_present_the_boy_to_him_along_with_royal_tokens_he_gave_her_as_gifts,_to_prove_her_boy_was_the_son_of_the_king._Akahi_hid_the_tokens_from_her_husband_and_later_gave_birth_to_a_son._At_the_age_of_15_or_16,_his_stepfather_was_punishing_the_boy_when_his_mother_intervened_and_told_the_man_not_to_touch_him_because_the_boy_was_his_lord_and_chief._She_uncovered_the_tokens_to_present_to_her_husband_to_prove_the_high_treason_he_would_have_committed._Akahi_gave_her_son_the_royal_malo_and_
lei_niho_palaoa A ''lei niho palaoa'' is a Hawaiian neck ornament traditionally worn by ''aliʻi'' (chiefs) of both sexes. The 19th century examples are most commonly made of a whale tooth carved into a hook-shape suspended by plaited human hair. The symbolism ...
_given_to_her_by_'Umi's_biological_father._Only_high_chiefs_wore_these_items._She_sent_'Umi_to_Waipiʻo_Valley_to_present_himself_to_the_king_as_his_son. Liloa's_palace_was_guarded_and_attended_by_several_
Kahuna ''Kahuna'' is a Hawaiian language, Hawaiian word that refers to an expert in any field. Historically, it has been used to refer to doctors, surgeons and dentists, as well as priests, ministers, and sorcerers. Background A ''kahuna'' may be ver ...
._The_entire_enclosure_was_sacred._Entering_without_permission_carried_the_death_penalty._Umi_entered_the_enclosure_with_attendants_afraid_to_stop_someone_wearing_the_royal_insignia_and_walked_straight_to_Liloa's_sleeping_quarters,_waking_him_there._When_Liloa_asked_who_he_was,_he_said_"It_is_I,_'Umi_your_son"._He_then_placed_the_tokens_at_his_father's_feet_and_Liloa_proclaimed_him_to_be_his_son._After_learning_of_'Umi,_Hākau_became_upset._Liloa_assured_his_first_born_that_he_would_be_king_after_his_death_and_his_brother_would_serve_him._'Umi_was_brought_to_court_on_an_equal_footing_with_Hākau._Living_within_Liloa's_court_alongside_his_brother,_Umi_found_great_favor_from_his_father,_increasing_Hākau's_dislike. In_exile,_'Umi_took_wives_and_began_building_forces_and_followers._Chiefs_began_to_believe_him_to_be_of_the_highest_chiefly_nature_from_signs_they_observed._He_gave_food_to_people_and_became_known_for_caring_for_all. After_Hākau's_death_the_other_aliʻi_of_the_island_claimed_their_districts_for_themselves._'Umi_took_the_advice_of_the_two_priests_by_marrying_many_woman_of_high_noble_rank,_including_his_half_sister_Kapukini_and_the_daughter_of_the_ruler_of_Hilo,_where_he_had_been_given_sanctuary_during_Hākau's_reign._Eventually_Umi_conquered_the_entire_island. After_unifying_the_island_of_Hawaii,_'Umi_was_faithful_to_those_who_had_supported_him,_and_allowed_his_three_most_faithful_companions,_and_the_two_Kahuna_who_had_aided_him,_to_help_him_govern.


_Aikāne

'' Aikāne''_relationships_or_(mostly_male)_homosexual_or_bisexual_activity_in_the_pre-colonial_era_was_an_accepted_tradition._These_relationships_were_accepted_as_part_of_
ancient_Hawaii Ancient Hawaii is the period of Hawaiian history preceding the unification in 1810 of the Kingdom of Hawaii by Kamehameha the Great. Traditionally, researchers estimated the first settlement of the Hawaiian islands as having occurred sporadicall ...
an_culture._Such_sexual_relationships_may_begin_in_the_teens_and_continue_thereafter,_even_though_they_have_heterosexual_partners._The_Hawaiian_''aikāne''_relationship_was_a_part_of_Hawaiian_noble_life,_including_that_of_Kamehameha_I._Some_myths_refer_to_women's_desires_and_therefore_some_women_may_have_been_involved_in_''aikāne''_relationships_as_well. Lieutenant_James_King_stated_that_"all_the_chiefs_had_them"_and_recounts_a_tale_that_James_Cook_ James_Cook__(7_November_1728_Old_Style_date:_27_October_–_14_February_1779)_was_a_British_explorer,_navigator,__cartographer,_and_captain_in_the_British_Royal_Navy,_famous_for_his_three_voyages_between_1768_and_1779_in_the_Pacific_Ocean_and_...
_was_actually_asked_by_one_chief_to_leave_Lt._King_behind,_considering_such_offer_a_great_honor._Members_of_Cook's_crew_related_tales_of_the_tradition_with_great_disdain._American_adventurer_and_sailor_ John_Ledyard_commented_in_detail_about_the_tradition.


_Land_division_system

Land_was_divided_up_in_strict_adherence_to_the_wishes_of_the_''Ali‘i_Nui''._The_traditional_system_of_land_has_four_hierarchical_levels: *''mokupuni''_(island) *''moku''_(subdivisions_of_an_island) *''ahupuaʻa_(''subdivision_of_''moku'') *''ʻili''_(two_or_three_per_ahupuaʻa,_but_
Kahoolawe Kahoolawe (Hawaiian: ), anglicized as Kahoolawe (), is the smallest of the eight main volcanic islands in the Hawaiian Islands. Kahoolawe is located about southwest of Maui and also southeast of Lānaʻi, and it is long by wide, with a total l ...
_for_example_had_eight) Some_oral_history_relates_that_ʻUmi_a_Līloa_created_the_ahupuaʻa_system._The_system_exploited_the_fact_that_communities_were_already_organized_along_stream_systems._The_community_governance_system_of_Kānāwai_is_attributed_specifically_to_shared_water_usage. The_Hawaiian_agricultural_system_contained_two_major_classes;_irrigated_and_rain-fed_(dryland)_systems._Irrigated_systems_mainly_supported_
taro Taro () (''Colocasia esculenta)'' is a root vegetable. It is the most widely cultivated species of several plants in the family Araceae that are used as vegetables for their corms, leaves, and petioles. Taro corms are a food staple in Afri ...
_(''kalo'')_cultivation._Rain-fed_systems_were_known_as_the_''mala.''_There_they_cultivated_uala_(
sweet_potato The sweet potato or sweetpotato ('' Ipomoea batatas'') is a dicotyledonous plant that belongs to the bindweed or morning glory family, Convolvulaceae. Its large, starchy, sweet-tasting tuberous roots are used as a root vegetable. The young ...
es),_ yams,_and_dryland_taro_along_with_coconuts_(''niu''),_
breadfruit Breadfruit (''Artocarpus altilis'') is a species of flowering tree in the mulberry and jackfruit family ( Moraceae) believed to be a domesticated descendant of '' Artocarpus camansi'' originating in New Guinea, the Maluku Islands, and the Phil ...
_(''ʻulu''),_bananas_(''maiʻa'')_and_
sugarcane Sugarcane or sugar cane is a species of (often hybrid) tall, perennial grass (in the genus '' Saccharum'', tribe Andropogoneae) that is used for sugar production. The plants are 2–6 m (6–20 ft) tall with stout, jointed, fibrous stalk ...
_(''ko'')._The_kukui_tree_(''
Aleurites_moluccanus ''Aleurites moluccanus'', the candlenut, is a flowering tree in the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae, also known as candleberry, Indian walnut, ''kemiri'', varnish tree, ''nuez de la India'', ''buah keras'', ''godou'', kukui nut tree, and ''rata k ...
'')_was_sometimes_used_as_a_shade_to_protect_the_''mala''_from_the_sun._Each_crop_was_carefully_placed_in_an_area_most_suitable_to_its_needs. Hawaiians_domesticated_dogs,_chickens_and_pigs._They_also_grew_personal_gardens_at_home._Water_was_a_very_important_part_of_Hawaiian_life;_it_was_used_for_fishing,_bathing,_drinking,_and_gardening,_and_for_
aquaculture Aquaculture (less commonly spelled aquiculture), also known as aquafarming, is the controlled cultivation ("farming") of aquatic organisms such as fish, crustaceans, mollusks, algae and other organisms of value such as aquatic plants (e.g. lot ...
_systems_in_the_rivers_and_at_the_shore's_edge. Ahupuaʻa_most_frequently_consisted_of_a_section_of_an_island_that_went_from_the_top_of_the_local_mountain_to_the_shore,_often_following_the_boundary_of_a_stream._Each_ahupuaʻa_included_a_lowland_''mala''_and_upland_forested_region.Losch,_Tracie,_and_Momi_Kamahele,_"Hawaii:_Center_of_the_Pacific"_(Pearl_City:_University_of_Hawaii_Leeward_Community_College,_2008)_Ahupuaʻa_varied_in_size_depending_on_the_economic_means_of_the_location_and_political_divisions_of_the_area._"As_the_native_Hawaiians_used_the_resources_within_their_ahupuaʻa,_they_practiced_''aloha''_(respect),_''laulima''_(cooperation)_and_''malama''_(stewardship)_which_resulted_in_a_desirable_''pono''_(balance)"._The_Hawaiians_believed_that_the_land,_the_sea,_the_clouds_and_all_of_nature_had_a_certain_interconnectedness_which_is_why_they_used_all_of_the_resources_around_them_to_reach_the_desired_balance_in_life._Sustainability_was_maintained_by_the_
konohiki A ''konohiki'' is a headman of a land division or ahupuaʻa of the Kingdom of Hawaii who administered the land ruled by an aliʻi chief. Background The lands of the ruling chiefs of Hawaii were divided into radial divisions of land when possible. ...
_and_kahuna:_priests,_who_restricted_the_fishing_of_certain_species_during_specific_seasons._They_also_regulated_the_gathering_of_plants. The_term_"ahupuaʻa"_is_derived_from_the_Hawaiian_words_''ahu''_"heap,_cairn"_and_''puaʻa''_" pig"._The_ boundary_markers_for_ahupuaʻa_were_traditionally_heaps_of_stones_used_to_hold_offers_to_the_island_chief,_which_was_often_a_pig. Each_ahupuaʻa_was_divided_into_smaller_sections_called_''ʻili''_and_the_''ʻili''_were_divided_into_''kuleana''._These_were_individual_plots_of_land_that_were_cultivated_by_commoners_who_paid_labor_taxes_to_the_land_overseer_each_week._These_taxes_went_to_support_the_chief._Two_possible_reasons_for_this_subdivision_have_been_offered: *travel:_in_many_areas_of_Hawaiʻi,_it_is_easier_to_travel_up-_and_downstream_than_from_stream_valley_to_stream_valley. *economy:_having_all_climate_and_economic_exploitation_zones_in_each_land_division_ensured_that_each_could_be_self-sufficient_for_a_large_portion_of_its_needs.


_Governance

The_Kingdom_was_administered_by_an_ ali'i_chief._Divisions_were_under_the_control_of_other_smaller_chiefs_and_managed_by_a_steward._The_headman_of_a_land_division_or_ahupua`a_is_a_''konohiki''._''Mokus''_were_ruled_by_an_''aliʻi_ʻaimoku''._''Ahupua'as_were''_run_by_a_headman_or_chief_called_a_
Konohiki A ''konohiki'' is a headman of a land division or ahupuaʻa of the Kingdom of Hawaii who administered the land ruled by an aliʻi chief. Background The lands of the ruling chiefs of Hawaii were divided into radial divisions of land when possible. ...
.


__Konohiki_

In_Keelikolani_vs_Robinson,_''kononiki''_is_defined_as_a_
Land_Agent Land agent may be used in at least three different contexts. Traditionally, a land agent was a managerial employee who conducted the business affairs of a large landed estate for a member of the landed gentry, supervising the farming of the prop ...
._In_Territory_vs_Bishop_Trust_Co._LTD.,_when_the_agent_was_appointed_by_a_chief,_they_were_referred_to_as_''konohiki''._The_term_could_also_be_a_designated_area_of_land_owned_privately_as_compared_to_being_owned_by_the_government._A_chief_of_lands_retained_life_tenure_on_the_land_even_after_being_discharged_from_the_position,_but_a_head_man_overseeing_the_same_land_had_no_such_protection. Often_'' ali'i''_and_''konohiki''_are_treated_synonymously._However,_while_most_''konohiki''_were_''ali'i''_nobility,_not_all_''ali'i''_were_''konohiki''._The_Hawaiian_dictionary_defines_''konohiki''_as_a_headman_of_a_land_division,_but_also_to_describe_ fishing_rights._''Kono''_means_to_entice_or_prompt._''Hiki''_refers_to_something_that_can_be_done._The_''konohiki''_was_a_ relative_of_the_''ali'i''_and_oversaw_the_property,_managing_
water_rights Water right in water law refers to the right of a user to use water from a water source, e.g., a river, stream, pond or source of groundwater. In areas with plentiful water and few users, such systems are generally not complicated or contentiou ...
,_ land_distribution,_
agricultural Agriculture or farming is the practice of cultivating plants and livestock. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that enabled peopl ...
_use_and_any_maintenance._The_''konohiki''_also_ensured_that_the_right_amounts_of_gifts_and_tribute_were_properly_made_at_the_right_times. As_
capitalism Capitalism is an economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and their operation for profit. Central characteristics of capitalism include capital accumulation, competitive markets, price system, private ...
_was_incorporated_into_the_kingdom,_the_konohiki_became_tax_collectors,_landlords_and_fishery_wardens.


__Breaking_of_the_Kapu_

In_a_triumph_for_women's_equality,_Hawaiians_overthrew_the_kapu_religious_theocracy_in_1819_by_themselves,_before_the_arrival_of_American_missionaries_and_without_the_support_of_western_powers_like_Great_Britain,_France,_or_the_United_States._On_October_4,_1819,_Kamehameha_II,_who_became_king_after_the_death_of_his_father_Kamehameha_I_(the_founder_of_the_Hawaiian_Kingdom),_ate_dinner_with_Queen_Ka‘ahumanu,_Kamehameha_I’s_favored_wife,_and_Queen_Keopuolani,_the_mother_of_Kamehameha_II._The_prohibition_on_men_and_women_eating_together,_the_‘ai_kapu,_was_one_of_the_most_ancient_kapus_or_prohibitions:_the_penalty_for_its_violation_was_death._Queen_Ka‘ahumanu,_however,_despised_the_prohibition_as_it_prevented_her_from_entering_certain_religious_temples_where_men_made_political_decisions_over_meals.__Queen_Keopuolani_also_violated_the_prohibition_even_before_the_public_breaking.__Violating_the_‘ai_kapu_at_a_public_dinner,_as_Kamehameha_II_did,_was_a_clear_signal_that_the_kapu_system_was_abolished_given_Kamehameha_II’s_status_as_King,_Kahamumanu’s_status_as_Queen_Regent,_and_Keopuolani’s_status_as_Queen.__The_guests_at_the_dinner_cried_out_“‘ai_noa!_”_(free_eating)._Afterwards,_Kamehameha_II_–_with_the_support_of_his_high_priest_Hewahewa_–_ordered_the_destruction_of_the_ancient_heiau_temples.__After_the_breaking_of_the_kapu,_a_brief_civil_war_then_broke_out,_with_Kamehameha_I’s_nephew,_Kekuaokalani,_opposing._Kekuaokalani’s_forces_were_defeated_by_Kamehameha_II’s_at_Kuamo‘o._The_victory_by_Kamehameha_II’s_forces_established,_as_a_matter_of_Hawaiian_political_history,_that_no_Hawaiian_could_impose_kapu_prohibitions_on_another_ever_again.


_Contact

Captain_James_Cook_ James_Cook__(7_November_1728_Old_Style_date:_27_October_–_14_February_1779)_was_a_British_explorer,_navigator,__cartographer,_and_captain_in_the_British_Royal_Navy,_famous_for_his_three_voyages_between_1768_and_1779_in_the_Pacific_Ocean_and_...
_(1728-1779)_led_three_separate_voyages_(1768-1779)_to_chart_unknown_areas_of_the_globe_for_Great_Britain._On_his_third_voyage_he_encountered_Hawaii,_first_sighting_the_islands_on_18_January_1778._He_anchored_off_the_coast_of_Kauai_and_met_with_the_local_inhabitants_to_trade_and_obtain_water_and_food_for_his_continued_voyage._On_2_February_1778,_Cook_continued_on_to_the_coast_of_the_North_American_continent,_searching_for_a_
Northwest_Passage The Northwest Passage (NWP) is the sea route between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans through the Arctic Ocean, along the northern coast of North America via waterways through the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. The eastern route along the ...
_for_approximately_nine_months._He_returned_to_the_Hawaii_chain_to_resupply,_initially_exploring_the_coasts_of_Maui_and_Hawaii_Island_to_trade._He_anchored_in_
Kealakekua_Bay Kealakekua Bay is located on the Kona coast of the island of Hawaii about south of Kailua-Kona. Settled over a thousand years ago, the surrounding area contains many archeological and historical sites such as religious temples (heiaus) and al ...
_in_January_1779._After_departing_Kealakekua,_he_returned_in_February_1779_after_a_ship's_mast_broke_in_bad_weather. On_the_night_of_13_February,_while_Cook's_expedition_lay_anchored_in_the_bay,_Hawaiians_stole_one_of_his_only_two_
longboat A longboat is a type of ship's boat that was in use from ''circa'' 1500 or before. Though the Royal Navy replaced longboats with launches from 1780, examples can be found in merchant ships after that date. The longboat was usually the largest boa ...
s_(lifeboats_used_to_ferry_to/from_ship/shore)._In_retaliation,_Cook_tried_to_kidnap_the_''aliʻi_nui''_of_Hawaii_Island,_
Kalaniʻōpuʻu Kalaniōpuu-a-Kaiamamao (c. 1729 – April 1782) was the aliʻi nui (supreme monarch) of the island of Hawaiʻi. He was called ''Terreeoboo, King of Owhyhee'' by James Cook and other Europeans. His name has also been written as Kaleiopuu. Bio ...
._On_14_February_1779_Cook_confronted_an_angry_crowd._ Kanaʻina_approached_Cook,_who_reacted_by_striking_the_royal_attendant_with_the_broad_side_of_his_sword._Kanaʻina_picked_up_the_navigator_and_dropped_him_while_another_attendant,_Nuaa,_killed_Cook_with_a_knife.


__Kingdom_of_Hawaii_

The_Kingdom_of_Hawaii_lasted_from_1795_until_its_overthrow_in_1893_with_the_fall_of_the_ House_of_Kalakaua.


_House_of_Kamehameha

The_''House_of_Kamehameha''_''(Hale_O_Kamehameha)'',_or_the_''Kamehameha_dynasty'',_was_the_reigning_Royal_Family_of_the_Kingdom_of_Hawaii_ The_Hawaiian_Kingdom,_or_Kingdom_of_Hawaiʻi_(_Hawaiian:_''Ko_Hawaiʻi_Pae_ʻĀina''),_was_a_sovereign_state_located_in_the__Hawaiian_Islands._The_country_was_formed_in_1795,_when_the_warrior_chief_Kamehameha_the_Great,_of_the_independent_islan_...
,_beginning_with_its_founding_by_Kamehameha_I_ Kamehameha_I_(;_Kalani_Paiea_Wohi_o_Kaleikini_Kealiikui_Kamehameha_o_Iolani_i_Kaiwikapu_kaui_Ka_Liholiho_Kūnuiākea;_ –__May_8_or_14,_1819),_also_known_as_Kamehameha_the_Great,_was_the_conqueror_and_first_ruler_of_the_Kingdom_of_Hawaii._Th_...
_in_1795_and_ending_with_the_deaths_of_
Kamehameha_V Kamehameha V (Lota Kapuāiwa Kalanimakua Aliʻiōlani Kalanikupuapaʻīkalaninui; December 11, 1830 – December 11, 1872), reigned as the fifth monarch of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi from 1863 to 1872. His motto was "Onipaʻa": immovable, firm, s ...
_in_1872_and_
William_Charles_Lunalilo Lunalilo (William Charles Lunalilo; January 31, 1835 – February 3, 1874) was the sixth monarch of the Hawaiian Kingdom, Kingdom of Hawaii from his election on January 8, 1873, until his death a year later. Born to Kekāuluohi and Charles Kana ...
_in_1874. The_origins_of_the_House_of_Kamehameha_can_be_traced_to_half_brothers,_
Kalaniʻōpuʻu Kalaniōpuu-a-Kaiamamao (c. 1729 – April 1782) was the aliʻi nui (supreme monarch) of the island of Hawaiʻi. He was called ''Terreeoboo, King of Owhyhee'' by James Cook and other Europeans. His name has also been written as Kaleiopuu. Bio ...
_and_ Keōua._Kalaniʻōpuʻu's_father_was_ Kalaninuiʻīamamao_while_Keōua's_father_was_
Kalanikeʻeaumoku Kalanikeʻeaumoku was an aliʻi (noble) of Hawaii (island) of the Kona district and part of Kohala district and grandfather of Kamehameha I. Family His mother was Kalanikauleleiaiwi and his father was Keaweʻīkekahialiʻiokamoku. He would ' ...
,_both_sons_of_
Keaweʻīkekahialiʻiokamoku Keaweīkekahialiiokamoku (c. 1665 – c. 1725) was the king of Hawaii Island in the late 17th century. He was the great-grandfather of Kamehameha I, the first king of the Kingdom of Hawaii. He was a progenitor of the House of Keawe. Biography He ...
._They_shared_a_common_mother,_
Kamakaʻīmoku Kamakaʻīmoku was a chiefess in ancient Hawaii in the early 18th century. She married three powerful men of the time, was mother of the King who would unite the island of Hawaii and meet the first known visitors from Europe, and grandmother of ...
._Both_brothers_served_ Alapaʻinui,_the_ruling_King_of_Hawaii_Island._Hawaiian_genealogy_notes_that_Keōua_may_not_have_been_Kamehameha's_biological_father,_and_that_
Kahekili_II Kahekili II, full name Kahekilinuiʻahumanu, (c. 1737–1794) was an ali'i (''Moʻi'') of Maui. His name was short for Kāne-Hekili after the Hawaiian god of thunder. Because Kāne-Hekili was believed to be black on one side, Kahekili tattooed on ...
_might_have_been_his_biological_father._Regardless,_Kamehameha_I's_descent_from_Keawe_remains_intact_through_his_mother,_ Kekuʻiapoiwa_II,_a_granddaughter_of_Keawe._Keōua_acknowledged_him_as_his_son_and_this_relationship_is_recognized_by_official_genealogies. The_traditional_mele_chant_of_Keaka,_wife_of_ Alapainui,_indicates_that_Kamehameha_I_was_born_in_the_month_of_''ikuwā''_(winter)_around_November._Alapai_gave_the_young_Kamehameha_to_his_wife_Keaka_and_her_sister_Hākau_to_care_for_after_the_ruler_discovered_the_boy_had_lived._ Samuel_Kamakau,_wrote,_''"It_was_during_the_time_of_the_warfare_among_the_chiefs_of_ he_island_ofHawaii_which_followed_the_death_of_Keawe,_chief_over_the_whole_island_(Ke-awe-i-kekahi-aliʻi-o-ka-moku)_that_Kamehameha_I_was_born"''._However,_his_general_dating_was_challenged._ Abraham_Fornander_wrote,_''"when_Kamehameha_died_in_1819_he_was_past_eighty_years_old._His_birth_would_thus_fall_between_1736_and_1740,_probably_nearer_the_former_than_the_latter"''._William_De_Witt_Alexander_lists_the_birth_date_as_1736._He_was_first_named_Paiea_but_took_the_name_Kamehameha,_meaning_"The_very_lonely_one"_or_"The_one_set_alone". Kamehameha's_uncle_Kalaniʻōpuʻu_raised_him_after_Keōua's_death._Kalaniʻōpuʻu_ruled_Hawaii_as_did_his_grandfather_Keawe._He_had_advisors_and_priests._When_word_reached_the_ruler_that_chiefs_were_planning_to_murder_the_boy,_he_told_Kamehameha: After_Kalaniʻōpuʻu's_death,_Kīwalaʻō_took_his_father's_place_as_first_born_and_ruled_the_island_while_Kamehameha_became_the_religious_authority._Some_chiefs_supported_Kamehameha_and_war_soon_broke_out_to_overthrow_Kīwalaʻō._After_multiple_battles_the_king_was_killed_and_envoys_sent_for_the_last_two_brothers_to_meet_with_Kamehameha._ Keōua_and_ Kaōleiokū_arrived_in_separate_canoes._Keōua_came_to_shore_first_where_a_fight_broke_out_and_he_and_all_aboard_were_killed._Before_the_same_could_happen_to_the_second_canoe,_Kamehameha_intervened._In_1793_Captain_
George_Vancouver Captain George Vancouver (22 June 1757 – 10 May 1798) was a British Royal Navy officer best known for his 1791–1795 expedition, which explored and charted North America's northwestern Pacific Coast regions, including the coasts of what are ...
_sailed_from_Britain_and_presented_the_
Union_Flag The Union Jack, or Union Flag, is the ''de facto'' national flag of the United Kingdom. Although no law has been passed making the Union Flag the official national flag of the United Kingdom, it has effectively become such through precedent. ...
_to_Kamehameha,_who_was_still_in_the_process_of_uniting_the_islands_into_a_single_state;_the_Union_Jack_flew_unofficially_as_the_flag_of_Hawaii_until_1816,_including_during_a_brief_spell_of_British_rule_after_Kamehameha_ceded_Hawaii_to_Vancouver_in_1794. By_1795,_Kamehameha_had_conquered_all_but_one_of_the_main_islands.__For_his_first_royal_residence,_the_new_King_built_the_first_western-style_structure_in_the_Hawaiian_Islands_ The_Hawaiian_Islands_(_haw,_Nā_Mokupuni_o_Hawai‘i)_are_an_archipelago_of_eight_major_islands,_several_atolls,_and_numerous_smaller__islets_in_the__North_Pacific_Ocean,_extending_some__from_the__island_of_Hawaii_in_the_south_to_northernmost__...
,_known_as_the_"
Brick_Palace The Brick Palace was the first western-style structure built in the Hawaiian Islands for Kamehameha the Great to serve as the first Royal Palace. Lahaina became the seat of government for the Hawaiian Kingdom until 1845. The king commissioned the ...
"._The_location_became_the_
seat_of_government The seat of government is (as defined by ''Brewer's Politics'') "the building, complex of buildings or the city from which a government exercises its authority". In most countries, the nation’s capital is also seat of its government, thus that ...
_for_the_
Hawaiian_Kingdom The Hawaiian Kingdom, or Kingdom of Hawaiʻi (Hawaiian language, Hawaiian: ''Ko Hawaiʻi Pae ʻĀina''), was a sovereign state located in the Hawaiian Islands. The country was formed in 1795, when the warrior chief Kamehameha the Great, of the ...
_until_1845._The_king_commissioned_the_structure_to_be_built_at_Keawa'iki_point_in_ Lahaina,_Maui._Two_ex-convicts_from_
Australia Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a sovereign country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands. With an area of , Australia is the largest country by ...
's_
Botany_Bay Botany Bay ( Dharawal: ''Kamay''), an open oceanic embayment, is located in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia, south of the Sydney central business district. Its source is the confluence of the Georges River at Taren Point and the Cook ...
_penal_colony_built_the_home._It_was_begun_in_1798_and_was_completed_after_4_years_in_1802._The_house_was_intended_for_
Kaʻahumanu Kaahumanu (March 17, 1768 – June 5, 1832) (''"the feathered mantle"'') was queen consort and acted as regent of the Kingdom of Hawaii as Kuhina Nui. She was the favorite wife of King Kamehameha I and also the most politically powerful, ...
,_but_she_refused_to_live_in_the_structure_and_resided_instead_in_an_adjacent,_traditional_Hawaiian-styled_home. Kamehameha_I_had_many_wives_but_held_two_in_the_highest_regard._Keōpūolani_was_the_highest_ranking_aliʻi_of_her_time_and_mother_to_his_sons,_Liholiho_and_Kauikeaouli._Kaʻahumanu_was_his_favorite._Kamehameha_I_died_in_1819,_succeeded_by_Liholiho.


_Kamehameha_II

After_Kamehameha_I's_death,_ Liholiho_left_Kailua_for_a_week_and_returned_to_be_crowned_king._At_the_lavish_ceremony_attended_by_commoners_and_nobles_he_approached_the_circle_of_chiefs,_as_Kaʻahumanu,_the_central_figure_in_the_group_and_Dowager_Queen,_said,_''"Hear_me_O_Divine_one,_for_I_make_known_to_you_the_will_of_your_father._Behold_these_chiefs_and_the_men_of_your_father,_and_these_your_guns,_and_this_your_land,_but_you_and_I_shall_share_the_realm_together".''_Liholiho_agreed_officially,_which_began_a_unique_system_of_dual-government_consisting_of_a_King_and_co-ruler_similar_to_a_
regent A regent (from Latin : ruling, governing) is a person appointed to govern a state '' pro tempore'' (Latin: 'for the time being') because the monarch is a minor, absent, incapacitated or unable to discharge the powers and duties of the monarchy ...
._Kamehameha_II_shared_his_rule_with_his_stepmother,_Kaʻahumanu._She_defied_Hawaiian_''kapu''_by_dining_with_the_young_king,_separating_the_sexes_during_meals,_leading_to_the_end_of_the_Hawaiian_religion_ Hawaiian_religion_refers_to_the__indigenous_religious_beliefs_and_practices_of_native_Hawaiians,_also_known_as_the__kapu_system._Hawaiian_religion_is_based_largely_on_the__tapu_religion_common_in_Polynesia_and_likely__originated_among_the__Tahitia_...
._Kamehameha_II_died,_along_with_his_wife,_Queen_ Kamāmalu_in_1824_on_a_state_visit_to_England,_succumbing_to_
measles Measles is a highly contagious infectious disease caused by measles virus. Symptoms usually develop 10–12 days after exposure to an infected person and last 7–10 days. Initial symptoms typically include fever, often greater than , cough, ...
._He_was_King_for_5_years. The_couple's_remains_were_returned_to_Hawaii_by_ Boki._Aboard_the_ship_''The_Blond''_his_wife_ Liliha_and_ Kekūanāoʻa_were_
baptized Baptism (from grc-x-koine, βάπτισμα, váptisma) is a form of ritual purification—a characteristic of many religions throughout time and geography. In Christianity, it is a Christian sacrament of initiation and adoption, almost i ...
_as_Christians._Kaʻahumanu_also_converted_and_became_a_powerful_Christian_influence_on_Hawaiian_society_until_her_death_in_1832._Since_the_new_king_was_only_12_years_old,_Kaʻahumanu_was_now_senior_ruler_and_named_Boki_as_her_
Kuhina_Nui Kuhina Nui was a powerful office in the Kingdom of Hawaii from 1819 to 1864. It was usually held by a relative of the king and was the rough equivalent of the 19th-century European office of Prime Minister or sometimes Regent. Origin of the offi ...
. Boki_left_Hawaii_on_a_trip_to_find_
sandalwood Sandalwood is a class of woods from trees in the genus '' Santalum''. The woods are heavy, yellow, and fine-grained, and, unlike many other aromatic woods, they retain their fragrance for decades. Sandalwood oil is extracted from the woods for ...
_to_cover_a_debt_and_was_lost_at_sea._His_wife,_Liliha_took_the_governorship_of_
Maui The island of Maui (; Hawaiian: ) is the second-largest of the islands of the state of Hawaii at 727.2 square miles (1,883 km2) and is the 17th largest island in the United States. Maui is the largest of Maui County's four islands, whic ...
_and_unsuccessfully_attempted_to_whip_up_a_revolt_against_Kaʻahumanu,_who_upon_Boki's_departure,_had_installed_
Kīnaʻu Princess Kalani Ahumanu i Kaliko o Iwi Kauhipua o Kīnau, also known as Elizabeth Kīnau ( – April 4, 1839) was Kuhina Nui of the Kingdom of Hawaii as Kaahumanu II, Queen regent and Dowager Queen. Life Her father was King Kamehameha I and he ...
_as_a_co-governor.


_Kaʻahumanu

Kaʻahumanu_was_born_on_
Maui The island of Maui (; Hawaiian: ) is the second-largest of the islands of the state of Hawaii at 727.2 square miles (1,883 km2) and is the 17th largest island in the United States. Maui is the largest of Maui County's four islands, whic ...
_around_1777._Her_parents_were_''aliʻi''_of_a_lower-ranking_line._She_became_Kamehameha's_consort_when_she_was_fourteen._
George_Vancouver Captain George Vancouver (22 June 1757 – 10 May 1798) was a British Royal Navy officer best known for his 1791–1795 expedition, which explored and charted North America's northwestern Pacific Coast regions, including the coasts of what are ...
_states:_''" e_of_the_finest_woman_we_had_yet_seen_on_any_of_the_islands"''._To_wed_the_young_woman,_Kamehameha_had_to_consent_to_make_her_children_his_heirs_to_the_Kingdom,_although_she_had_no_issue. Before_his_death,_Kamehameha_selected_Kaʻahumanu_to_rule_along_with_his_son._Kaʻahumanu_had_also_adopted_the_boy._She_had_the_highest_political_clout_in_the_islands._A_portrait_artist_remarked_of_her:_''"This_Old_Dame_is_the_most_proud,_unbending_Lady_in_the_whole_island._As_the_widow_of_ amehameha_she_possesses_unbound_authority_and_respect,_not_any_of_which_she_is_inclined_to_lay_aside_on_any_occasion_whatsoever"''._She_was_one_of_Hawaii's_most_influential_leaders.


_The_Royal_Election_of_1874_and_Sugar_reciprocity

Sugar_became_a_major_export_from_Hawaii_soon_after_Cook's_arrival._The_first_permanent_plantation_began_in_
Kauai Kauai, () anglicized as Kauai ( ), is geologically the second-oldest of the main Hawaiian Islands (after Niʻihau). With an area of 562.3 square miles (1,456.4 km2), it is the fourth-largest of these islands and the 21st largest islan ...
_in_1835._ William_Hooper_leased_980_acres_of_land_from_
Kamehameha_III Kamehameha III (born Kauikeaouli) (March 17, 1814 – December 15, 1854) was the third king of the Kingdom of Hawaii from 1825 to 1854. His full Hawaiian name is Keaweaweula Kīwalaō Kauikeaouli Kaleiopapa and then lengthened to Keaweaweula Kī ...
_and_began_growing_
sugarcane Sugarcane or sugar cane is a species of (often hybrid) tall, perennial grass (in the genus '' Saccharum'', tribe Andropogoneae) that is used for sugar production. The plants are 2–6 m (6–20 ft) tall with stout, jointed, fibrous stalk ...
._Within_thirty_years_plantations_operated_on_the_four_main_islands._Sugar_completely_altered_Hawaii's_economy. American_influence_in_Hawaiian_government_began_with_U.S._plantation_owners_demanding_a_say_in_Kingdom_politics._This_was_driven_by_missionary_religion_and_sugar_economics._Pressure_from_these_plantation_owners_was__felt_by_the_King_and_chiefs_as_demands_for_land_tenure._After_the_brief_ 1843_takeover_by_the_British,_Kamehameha_III_responded_to_the_demands_with_the_
Great_Mahele Great may refer to: Descriptions or measurements * Great, a relative measurement in physical space, see Size * Greatness, being divine, majestic, superior, majestic, or transcendent People * List of people known as "the Great" *Artel Great (born ...
,_distributing_the_lands_to_all_Hawaiians_as_advocated_by_missionaries_including_ Gerrit_P._Judd._Kamehameha_III_also_tried_to_modernize_Hawaii's_legal_system_by_replacing_ indigenous_traditions_with_Anglo-American_
common_law In law, common law (also known as judicial precedent, judge-made law, or case law) is the body of law created by judges and similar quasi-judicial tribunals by virtue of being stated in written opinions."The common law is not a brooding omniprese ...
. During_the_1850s,_the_U.S._import_tariff_on_sugar_from_Hawaii_was_much_higher_than_the_import_tariffs_Hawaiians_were_charging_the_U.S.,_and_
Kamehameha_III Kamehameha III (born Kauikeaouli) (March 17, 1814 – December 15, 1854) was the third king of the Kingdom of Hawaii from 1825 to 1854. His full Hawaiian name is Keaweaweula Kīwalaō Kauikeaouli Kaleiopapa and then lengthened to Keaweaweula Kī ...
_sought_reciprocity._The_monarch_wished_to_lower_U.S._tariffs_and_make_Hawaiian_sugar_competitive_with_other_foreign_suppliers._In_1854_Kamehameha_III_proposed_a_policy_of_reciprocity_between_the_countries,_but_the_proposal_died_in_the_ U.S._Senate. U.S._control_of_Hawaii_was_considered_vital_for_the_defense_of_its_west_coast._The_military_was_especially_interested_in_ Pu'uloa,_Pearl_Harbor._The_sale_of_one_harbor_was_proposed_by_ Charles_Reed_Bishop,_a_foreigner_who_had_married_into_the_ Kamehameha_family,_had_risen_to_be_ Hawaiian_Minister_of_Foreign_Affairs_and_owned_a_country_home_near_Pu'uloa._He_showed_two_U.S._officers_around_the_lochs,_although_his_wife,_
Bernice_Pauahi_Bishop Bernice Pauahi Bishop KGCOK RoK (December 19, 1831 – October 16, 1884), born Bernice Pauahi Pākī, was an '' alii'' (noble) of the Royal Family of the Kingdom of Hawaii and a well known philanthropist. At her death, her estate was the la ...
,_privately_disapproved_of_selling_Hawaiian_lands._As_monarch,_
William_Charles_Lunalilo Lunalilo (William Charles Lunalilo; January 31, 1835 – February 3, 1874) was the sixth monarch of the Hawaiian Kingdom, Kingdom of Hawaii from his election on January 8, 1873, until his death a year later. Born to Kekāuluohi and Charles Kana ...
,_was_content_to_let_Bishop_run_most_business_affairs,_but_the_ceding_of_lands_became_unpopular_with_Hawaiians._Many_islanders_thought_that_all_the_islands,_rather_than_just_Pearl_Harbor,_might_be_lost_and_opposed_any_cession._By_November_1873,_Lunalilo_canceled_negotiations_but_his_health_declined_swiftly,_and_he_died_on_February_3,_1874,_at_age_of_39. Lunalilo_left_no_heirs._The_legislature_was_empowered_by_the_constitution_to_elect_the_monarch_in_these_instances.__The_legislature_decided_to_hold_a_public_referendum_and_to_choose_who_the_public_voted_for.__ Queen_Emma_and_
David_Kalākaua David (; , "beloved one") (traditional spelling), , ''Dāwūd''; grc-koi, Δαυΐδ, Dauíd; la, Davidus, David; gez , ዳዊት, ''Dawit''; xcl, Դաւիթ, ''Dawitʿ''; cu, Давíдъ, ''Davidŭ''; possibly meaning "beloved one". w ...
_both_declared_their_candidacy.__Kalākaua_won_the_election.__However,_Queen_Emma_and_her_supporters_were_not_satisfied.__While_the_legislature_was_formally_voting_to_certify_Kalākaua_as_King_pursuant_to_the_public_referendum,_Queen_Emma's_supporters_ descended_on_the_capitol_and_attacked_the_legislators.__13_legislators_supporting_Kalākaua_were_injured,_including_one_who_died_after_being_tossed_from_a_window.__The_monarchy_had_no_army_and_the_police_deserted,_thus_the_Hawaiian_government_requested_the_support_of_American_troops_to_quell_the_riot.__The_legislature_then_duly_elected_Kalākaua_as_Lunalilo's_successor._ The_new_ruler_was_pressured_by_the_U.S._government_to_surrender_Pearl_Harbor_to_the_Navy._Kalākaua_was_concerned_that_this_would_lead_to_annexation_by_the_U.S._and_to_violating_the_traditions_of_the_Hawaiian_people,_who_believed_that_the_land_('Āina)_was_fertile,_sacred_and_not_for_sale._From_1874_through_1875,_Kalākaua_made_a_state_visit_to_Washington_DC_to_gather_support_for_a_new_treaty._Congress_agreed_to_the_
Reciprocity_Treaty_of_1875 The Treaty of reciprocity between the United States of America and the Hawaiian Kingdom ( Hawaiian: ''Kuʻikahi Pānaʻi Like'') was a free trade agreement signed and ratified in 1875 that is generally known as the Reciprocity Treaty of 1875. T ...
_for_seven_years_in_exchange_for_Ford_Island_(Pearl_Harbor)._After_the_treaty,_sugar_production_expanded_from_12,000_acres_to_125,000_acres_in_1891._At_the_end_of_the_seven-year_term,_the_United_States_showed_little_interest_in_renewal.


_Rebellion_of_1887_and_the_Bayonet_Constitution

On_January_20,_1887,_the_United_States_began_leasing_Pearl_Harbor._Shortly_afterwards,_a_group_of_mostly_non-Hawaiians_calling_themselves_the_''Hawaiian_Patriotic_League''_began_the_ Rebellion_of_1887._They_drafted_their_own_constitution_on_July_6,_1887._The_new_constitution_was_written_by_
Lorrin_Thurston Lorrin Andrews Thurston (July 31, 1858 – May 11, 1931) was an American lawyer, politician, and businessman born and raised in the Kingdom of Hawaii. Thurston played a prominent role in the Overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom that replaced Q ...
,_the_Hawaiian_Minister_of_the_Interior_who_used_the_Hawaiian_militia_to_threaten_Kalākaua._Kalākaua_was_forced_to_dismiss_his_cabinet_ministers_and_sign_ a_new_constitution_that_greatly_lessened_his_power._It_would_become_known_as_the_"
Bayonet_Constitution The 1887 Constitution of the Hawaiian Kingdom was a legal document prepared by anti-monarchists to strip the Hawaiian monarchy of much of its authority, initiating a transfer of power to American, European and native Hawaiian elites. It became k ...
"_due_to_the_threat_of_force.
Grover_Cleveland Stephen Grover Cleveland (March 18, 1837June 24, 1908) was an American lawyer and politician who served as the 22nd and 24th president of the United States from 1885 to 1889 and from 1893 to 1897. Cleveland is the only president in American ...
_was_president_at_the_time,_and_his_secretary_of_state_
Thomas_F._Bayard Thomas Francis Bayard (October 29, 1828 – September 28, 1898) was an American lawyer, politician and diplomat from Wilmington, Delaware. A Democrat, he served three terms as United States Senator from Delaware and made three unsuccessful bids ...
_sent_written_instructions_to_the_American_minister_George_W._Merrill_that_in_the_event_of_another_revolution_in_Hawaii,_it_was_a_priority_to_protect_American_commerce,_lives_and_property._Bayard_specified,_"the_assistance_of_the_officers_of_our_Government_vessels,_if_found_necessary,_will_therefore_be_promptly_afforded_to_promote_the_reign_of_law_and_respect_for_orderly_government_in_Hawaii."_In_July_1889,_there_was_a_small_scale_rebellion,_and_Minister_Merrill_landed_Marines_to_protect_Americans;_the_State_Department_explicitly_approved_his_action.__Merrill's_replacement,_minister_ John_L._Stevens,_read_those_official_instructions,_and_followed_them_in_his_controversial_actions_of_1893. Although_Kalākaua's_signature_alone_had_no_legal_power,_the_new_constitution_allowed_the_monarch_to_appoint_cabinet_ministers,_but_stripped_him_of_the_power_to_dismiss_them_without_approval_from_the_Legislature._Eligibility_to_vote_for_the_ House_of_Nobles_was_altered,_requiring_that_both_candidates_and_voters_own_property_valued_three_thousand_dollars_or_more,_or_have_an_annual_income_of_six_hundred_dollars_or_more._This_disenfranchised_two_thirds_of_native_Hawaiians_and_other_
ethnic_groups An ethnic group or an ethnicity is a grouping of people who identify with each other on the basis of shared attributes that distinguish them from other groups. Those attributes can include common sets of traditions, ancestry, language, history, ...
_who_had_previously_been_eligible_to_vote._This_constitution_benefited_the_foreign_plantation_owners._With_the_legislature_now_responsible_for_naturalizing_aliens,_Americans_and_Europeans_could_retain_their_home_country_citizenship_and_vote_as_citizens_of_the_kingdom._Along_with_voting_privileges,_Americans_could_hold_office_and_still_retain_their_American_citizenship,_something_not_afforded_in_any_other_nation_and_even_allowed_Americans_to_vote_without_becoming_naturalized._Asian_immigrants_were_no_longer_able_to_acquire_citizenship_or_vote.


_Wilcox_Rebellion_of_1888

The_Wilcox_Rebellion_of_1888_was_a_plot_to_overthrow_ King_David_Kalākaua_and_replace_him_with_his_sister_in_a_
coup_d'état A coup d'état (; French for 'stroke of state'), also known as a coup or overthrow, is a seizure and removal of a government and its powers. Typically, it is an illegal seizure of power by a political faction, politician, cult, rebel group, m ...
._This_was_in_response_to_increased_political_tension_between_the_legislature_and_the_king_under_the_1887_constitution._Kalākaua's_sister,_ Princess_Liliuokalani_and_wife,_
Queen_Kapiolani Queen or QUEEN may refer to: Monarchy * Queen regnant, a female monarch of a Kingdom ** List of queens regnant * Queen consort, the wife of a reigning king * Queen dowager, the widow of a king * Queen mother, a queen dowager who is the mother ...
_returned_from_
Queen_Victoria's_Golden_Jubilee The Golden Jubilee of Queen Victoria was celebrated on 20 and 21 June 1887 to mark the 50th anniversary of Queen Victoria's accession on 20 June 1837. It was celebrated with a Thanksgiving Service at Westminster Abbey, and a banquet to which ...
_immediately_after_news_reached_them_in_
Great_Britain Great Britain is an island in the North Atlantic Ocean off the northwest coast of continental Europe. With an area of , it is the largest of the British Isles, the largest European island and the ninth-largest island in the world. It ...
. Kalākaua's_distant_cousin,_a_native_Hawaiian_officer_and_veteran_of_the_
Italian Italian(s) may refer to: * Anything of, from, or related to the people of Italy over the centuries ** Italians, an ethnic group or simply a citizen of the Italian Republic or Italian Kingdom ** Italian language, a Romance language *** Regional Ita ...
_
military A military, also known collectively as armed forces, is a heavily armed, highly organized force primarily intended for warfare. It is typically authorized and maintained by a sovereign state, with its members identifiable by their distinct ...
,_ Robert_William_Wilcox_returned_to_Hawaii_at_about_the_same_time_as_Liliuokalani_in_October_1887_when_the_funding_for_his_study_program_stopped._Wilcox,_ Charles_B._Wilson,_ Princess_Liliuokalani,_and_Sam_Nowlein_plotted_to_ overthrow_King_Kalākaua_and_replace_him_with_Liliuokalani._300_Hawaiian_conspirators_hid_in_
Iolani_Barracks Iolani is a masculine Hawaiian name meaning "royal ''hawk''." It comes from the Hawaiian words ''ʻio'', meaning " Hawaiian hawk," and ''lani'', meaning "royal." It may refer to: * ʻIolani School, a private school located in Hawaii *ʻIolani Pal ...
_and_an_alliance_was_formed_with_the_Royal_Guard,_but_the_plot_was_accidentally_discovered_in_January_1888,_less_than_48_hours_before_the_revolt._No_one_was_prosecuted,_but_Wilcox_was_
exile Exile is primarily penal expulsion from one's native country, and secondarily expatriation or prolonged absence from one's homeland under either the compulsion of circumstance or the rigors of some high purpose. Usually persons and peoples suf ...
d._On_February_11,_1888,_Wilcox_left_Hawaii_for_San_Francisco,_intending_to_return_to_Italy_with_his_wife. Princess_Liliuokalani_was_offered_the_throne_several_times_by_the_ Missionary_Party_who_had_forced_the_Bayonet_Constitution_on_her_brother,_but_she_believed_she_would_become_a_powerless_figurehead_like_her_brother_and_rejected_the_offers._In_January_1891,_Kalākaua_traveled_to_San_Francisco_for_his_health,_staying_at_the_ Palace_Hotel._He_died_there_on_January_20._She_then_ascended_the_throne._Queen_Liliuokalani_called_her_brother's_reign_"a_golden_age_materially_for_Hawaii".


__Liliuokalani's_attempt_to_re-write_Constitution_

Liliuokalani_assumed_the_throne_in_the_middle_of_an_economic_crisis._The_ McKinley_Act_had_crippled_the_Hawaiian_sugar_industry_by_removing_the_duties_on_sugar_imports_from_other_countries_into_the_US,_eliminating_the_previous_Hawaiian_advantage_due_to_the_Reciprocity_Treaty_of_1875._Many_Hawaii_businesses_and_citizens_lost_revenue;_in_response_Liliuokalani_proposed_a_
lottery A lottery is a form of gambling that involves the drawing of numbers at random for a prize. Some governments outlaw lotteries, while others endorse it to the extent of organizing a national or state lottery. It is common to find some degree of ...
_system_to_raise_money_for_her_government._Controversially,_
opium Opium (or poppy tears, scientific name: ''Lachryma papaveris'') is dried latex obtained from the seed capsules of the opium poppy '' Papaver somniferum''. Approximately 12 percent of opium is made up of the analgesic alkaloid morphine, which ...
_licensing_was_proposed._Her_ministers_and_closest_friends_were_all_opposed_to_this_plan;_they_unsuccessfully_tried_to_dissuade_her_from_pursuing_these_initiatives,_both_of_which_came_to_be_used_against_her_in_the_brewing_constitutional_crisis. Liliuokalani's_chief_desire_was_to_restore_power_to_the_monarch_by_abrogating_the_1887_Bayonet_Constitution_and_promulgating_a_new_one._The_ 1893_Constitution_would_have_extended_suffrage_by_reducing_some_property_requirements._It_would_have_disenfranchised_many_non-citizen_Europeans_and_Americans._The_Queen_toured_several_islands_on_horseback,_talking_to_the_people_about_her_ideas_and_receiving_overwhelming_support,_including_a_lengthy_petition_in_support_of_a_new_constitution._However,_when_the_Queen_informed_her_cabinet_of_her_plans,_they_withheld_their_support,_uncomfortable_with_what_they_expected_her_opponent's_likely_response_to_be. Liliuokalani's_attempt_to_promulgate_a_new_constitution_on_January_14,_1893,_was_the_precipitating_event_leading_to_the_overthrow_of_the_Kingdom_of_Hawaii_three_days_later._The_conspirators'_stated_goals_were_to_depose_the_queen,_overthrow_the_monarchy,_and_seek_Hawaii's_annexation_to_the_U.S._The_conspirators_were_five_American,_one_English_and_one_German_national.


_Overthrow

The_overthrow_was_led_by_Thurston,_who_was_the_grandson_of_American_missionaries_and_derived_his_support_primarily_from_the_American_and_European_business_class_and_other_supporters_of_the_
Reform_Party_of_the_Hawaiian_Kingdom The Reform Party, also referred to as "the Missionary Party", or the "Down-Town Party", was a political party in the Kingdom of Hawaii. It was founded by descendants of Protestant missionaries that came to Hawaii from New England. Following the Ann ...
._Most_of_the_leaders_of_the_ Committee_of_Safety_that_deposed_the_queen_were_American_and_European_citizens_who_were_Kingdom_subjects._They_included_legislators,_government_officers_and_a_Supreme_Court_Justice_of_the_Hawaiian_Kingdom. On_January_16,_the_Marshal_of_the_Kingdom,_ Charles_B._Wilson_was_tipped_off_by_detectives_of_the_planned_coup._Wilson_requested_
warrants Warrant may refer to: * Warrant (law), a form of specific authorization ** Arrest warrant, authorizing the arrest and detention of an individual ** Search warrant, a court order issued that authorizes law enforcement to conduct a search for eviden ...
_to_arrest_the_13_Council_members_and_put_the_Kingdom_under_
martial_law Martial law is the imposition of direct military control of normal civil functions or suspension of civil law by a government, especially in response to an emergency where civil forces are overwhelmed, or in an occupied territory. Use Martia ...
._Because_the_members_had_strong_political_ties_with_U.S._Government_Minister_ John_L._Stevens,_the_requests_were_repeatedly_denied_by_Attorney_General_ Arthur_P._Peterson_and_the_Queen's_cabinet,_fearing_if_approved,_the_arrests_would_escalate_the_situation._After_a_failed_negotiation_with_ Thurston,_Wilson_began_to_collect_his_troops_for_the_confrontation._Wilson_and_Captain_of_the_ Royal_Household_Guard_Samuel_Nowlein_rallied_a_force_of_496_troops_who_were_kept_at_hand_to_protect_the_Queen. The_overthrow_began_on_January_17,_1893._A_policeman_was_shot_and_wounded_while_trying_to_stop_a_wagon_carrying_weapons_to_the_
Honolulu_Rifles The Honolulu Rifles were the name of two volunteer military companies of the Hawaiian Kingdom. First company In 1857, the First Hawaiian Cavalry, an artillery and infantry company which was originally established in 1852, was renamed the Honolulu ...
,_the_paramilitary_wing_of_the_Committee_of_Safety._The_Committee_feared_the_shooting_would_bring_government_forces_to_rout_the_conspirators_and_stop_the_coup_before_it_could_begin._The_Committee_of_Safety_initiated_the_overthrow_by_organizing_the_
Honolulu_Rifles The Honolulu Rifles were the name of two volunteer military companies of the Hawaiian Kingdom. First company In 1857, the First Hawaiian Cavalry, an artillery and infantry company which was originally established in 1852, was renamed the Honolulu ...
_made_of_about_1,500_armed_local_(non-native)_men._The_Rifles_garrisoned_ Ali'iolani_Hale_across_the_street_from_
ʻIolani_Palace The Iolani Palace ( haw, Hale Aliʻi ʻIolani) was the royal residence of the rulers of the Kingdom of Hawaii beginning with Kamehameha III under the Kamehameha Dynasty (1845) and ending with Queen Liliʻuokalani (1893) under the Kalākaua Dyn ...
_and_waited_for_the_Queen's_response. As_these_events_were_unfolding,_the_Committee_of_Safety_expressed_concern_for_the_safety_and_property_of_American_residents_in_Honolulu.


_United_States_military_support_

The_coup_efforts_were_supported_by_U.S._Government_Minister_ John_L._Stevens._The_coup_left_the_queen_under_house_arrest_at_
Iolani_Palace Iolani is a masculine Hawaiian name meaning "royal ''hawk''." It comes from the Hawaiian words ''ʻio'', meaning "Hawaiian hawk," and ''lani'', meaning "royal." It may refer to: *ʻIolani School, a private school located in Hawaii *ʻIolani Palac ...
._The_Kingdom_briefly_became_the_Republic_of_Hawaii,_before_annexation_by_the_United_States_in_1898._Advised_about_supposed_threats_to_non-combatant_American_lives_and_property_by_the_Committee_of_Safety, Stevens_summoned_a_company_of_uniformed_U.S._Marines_from_the_ USS_''Boston''_and_two_companies_of_U.S._sailors_to_take_up_positions_at_the_U.S._Legation,_Consulate_and_Arion_Hall_on_the_afternoon_of_January_16,_1893._162_armed_sailors_and_
Marines Marines, or naval infantry, are typically a military force trained to operate in littoral zones in support of naval operations. Historically, tasks undertaken by marines have included helping maintain discipline and order aboard the ship (refl ...
_aboard_the_ USS_''Boston''_in_Honolulu_Harbor_came_ashore_under_orders_of_neutrality._The_sailors_and_Marines_did_not_enter_the_Palace_grounds_or_take_over_any_buildings,_and_never_fired_a_shot,_but_their_presence_intimidated_royalist_defenders._Historian_William_Russ_states,_"the_injunction_to_prevent_fighting_of_any_kind_made_it_impossible_for_the_monarchy_to_protect_itself."


__United_States_territory_


__Annexation_

In_March_1897,_
William_McKinley William McKinley (January 29, 1843September 14, 1901) was the 25th president of the United States, serving from 1897 until his assassination in 1901. As a politician he led a realignment that made his Republican Party largely dominant in t ...
,_a_Republican_expansionist,_succeeded_Democrat_
Grover_Cleveland Stephen Grover Cleveland (March 18, 1837June 24, 1908) was an American lawyer and politician who served as the 22nd and 24th president of the United States from 1885 to 1889 and from 1893 to 1897. Cleveland is the only president in American ...
_as_U.S._President._He_prepared_a_treaty_of_
annexation Annexation (Latin ''ad'', to, and ''nexus'', joining), in international law, is the forcible acquisition of one state's territory by another state, usually following military occupation of the territory. It is generally held to be an illegal act ...
_but_it_lacked_the_needed_2/3_majority_in_the_
Senate A senate is a deliberative assembly, often the upper house or chamber of a bicameral legislature. The name comes from the ancient Roman Senate (Latin: ''Senatus''), so-called as an assembly of the senior (Latin: ''senex'' meaning "the el ...
_given_Democratic_opposition._A_
joint_resolution In the United States Congress, a joint resolution is a legislative measure that requires passage by the Senate and the House of Representatives and is presented to the President for their approval or disapproval. Generally, there is no legal diff ...
,_written_by_Democratic_Congressman_ Francis_G._Newlands_to_annex_Hawaii_passed_both_the_House_and_Senate;_it_needed_only_majority_support.__The_U.S._Supreme_Court_gave_tacit_recognition_to_the_legitimacy_of_this_annexation_in_De_Lima_v._Bidwell,_182_U.S._1,_196_(1901)._The_
Spanish–American_War , partof = the Philippine Revolution, the decolonization of the Americas, and the Cuban War of Independence , image = Collage infobox for Spanish-American War.jpg , image_size = 300px , caption = (clock ...
_had_broken_out_and_many_leaders_wanted_control_of_Pearl_Harbor_to_help_the_United_States_to_become_a_Pacific_power_and_protect_the_West_Coast._Kalākaua_was_concerned_over_a_possible_United_States_seizure_of_the_Hawaiian_Islands_and,_in_ Kalākaua's_1881_world_tour_held_a_secret_meeting_with_the_Japanese_Emperor_to_bring_Hawaii_under_the_protective_aegis._He_proposed_to_unite_the_two_nations_with_an_arranged_marriage_between_his_5-year-old_niece_Princess_ Kaʻiulani_and_13-year-old_ Prince_Yamashina_Sadamaro._His_proposal_was_rejected_by_Japan_because_Japan_was_concerned_that_accepting_this_offer_will_worsen_the_diplomatic_conflict_between_Japan_and_the_United_States._In_1897_Japan_sent_warships_to_Hawaii_to_oppose_annexation._The_possibility_of_invasion_and_annexation_by_Japan_made_the_decision_even_more_urgent,_especially_since_the_islands'_fourth_population_was_Japanese_who_were_largely_sympathetic_to_their_country's_goal_in_doing_so. McKinley_signed_the_
Newlands_Resolution The Newlands Resolution was a joint resolution passed on July 7, 1898, by the United States Congress to annex the independent Republic of Hawaii. In 1900, Congress created the Territory of Hawaii. The resolution was drafted by Representative Fr ...
_annexing_Hawaii_on_July_7,_1898,_creating_the_Territory_of_Hawaii_ The_Territory_of_Hawaii_or_Hawaii_Territory_(_Hawaiian:_''Panalāʻau_o_Hawaiʻi'')_was_an__organized_incorporated_territory_of_the_United_States_that_existed_from_April_30,_1900,_until_August_21,_1959,_when_most_of_its_territory,_excluding_...
._On_22_February_1900_the_ Hawaiian_Organic_Act_established_a_territorial_government._Annexation_opponents_held_that_this_was_illegal,_claiming_the_Queen_was_the_only_legitimate_ruler._McKinley_appointed_
Sanford_B._Dole Sanford Ballard Dole (April 23, 1844 – June 9, 1926) was a lawyer and jurist from the Hawaiian Islands. He lived through the periods when Hawaii was a kingdom, protectorate, republic, and territory. A descendant of the American missionar ...
_as_territorial_governor._The_territorial_legislature_convened_for_the_first_time_on_February_20,_1901._Hawaiians_formed_the_ Hawaiian_Independent_Party,_under_the_leadership_of_Robert_Wilcox,_Hawaii's_first_ congressional_delegate.


__Plantations_

Sugarcane Sugarcane or sugar cane is a species of (often hybrid) tall, perennial grass (in the genus '' Saccharum'', tribe Andropogoneae) that is used for sugar production. The plants are 2–6 m (6–20 ft) tall with stout, jointed, fibrous stalk ...
_ plantations_in_Hawaii_expanded_during_the_territorial_period._Some_companies_diversified_and_came_to_dominate_related_industries_including_transportation,_banking_and_real_estate._Economic_and_political_power_was_concentrated_in_what_were_known_as_the_" Big_Five". A_1909_strike_by_Japanese_farm_workers_led_to_a_brief_experiment_importing_Russian_laborers,_mostly_from_Siberia._False_promises_of_land_grants_by_a_recruiter_named_A.W._Perelstrous_resulted_in_strikes_among_the_Russian_workers_as_well._Experiencing_many_hardships_including_a_measles_outbreak,_lack_of_ability_to_communicate_with_Hawaiians,_and_culture_clashes,_most_Russians_ended_up_moving_to_California,_New_York,_or_back_to_Russia_(mostly_after_the_1917_
Russian_Revolution The Russian Revolution was a period of political and social revolution that took place in the former Russian Empire which began during the First World War. This period saw Russia abolish its monarchy and adopt a socialist form of government ...
).


__World_War_II_


__Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor_

Pearl_Harbor Pearl Harbor is an American lagoon harbor on the island of Oahu, Hawaii, west of Honolulu. It was often visited by the Naval fleet of the United States, before it was acquired from the Hawaiian Kingdom by the U.S. with the signing of the ...
_was_attacked_on_December_7,_1941,_by_the_
Imperial_Japanese_Navy The Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN; Kyūjitai: Shinjitai: ' 'Navy of the Greater Japanese Empire', or ''Nippon Kaigun'', 'Japanese Navy') was the navy of the Empire of Japan from 1868 to 1945, when it was dissolved following Japan's surrender ...
,_killing_almost_2,500_people_and_sinking_the_main_American_
battleship A battleship is a large armour, armored warship with a main artillery battery, battery consisting of large caliber guns. It dominated naval warfare in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The term ''battleship'' came into use in the late 1 ...
_fleet._Fortuitously_for_the_Americans,_the_four_Pacific_
aircraft_carrier An aircraft carrier is a warship that serves as a seagoing airbase, equipped with a full-length flight deck and facilities for carrying, arming, deploying, and recovering aircraft. Typically, it is the capital ship of a fleet, as it allows a ...
s_were_not_in_port_and_escaped_damage._Hawaii_was_put_under_martial_law_until_1945._Unlike_the_
West_Coast_of_the_United_States The West Coast of the United States, also known as the Pacific Coast, Pacific states, and the western seaboard, is the coastline along which the Western United States meets the North Pacific Ocean. The term typically refers to the contiguous U.S ...
_in_which_ 100,000_ethnic_Japanese_citizens_were_interned,_the_Japanese_American_population_in_Hawaii_completely_avoided_such_similar_fate,_though_hundreds_of_pro-Japan_leaders_were_arrested._Pearl_Harbor_was_the_U.S.'_main_forward_base_for_the_Pacific_War._The_Japanese_tried_to_invade_in_summer_1942_but_were_defeated_at_the_
Battle_of_Midway The Battle of Midway was a major naval battle in the Pacific Theater of World War II that took place on 4–7 June 1942, six months after Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor and one month after the Battle of the Coral Sea. The U.S. Navy under ...
._Hundreds_of_thousands_of_American_soldiers,_sailors,_Marines,_and_airmen_passed_through_on_their_way_to_the_fighting. Many_Hawaii_residents_served_in_the_442nd_Regimental_Combat_Team,_a_
U.S._Army The United States Army (USA) is the land service branch of the United States Armed Forces. It is one of the eight U.S. uniformed services, and is designated as the Army of the United States in the U.S. Constitution.Article II, section 2, cl ...
_
infantry Infantry is a military specialization which engages in ground combat on foot. Infantry generally consists of light infantry, mountain infantry, motorized infantry & mechanized infantry, airborne infantry, air assault infantry, and mar ...
 
regiment A regiment is a military unit. Its role and size varies markedly, depending on the country, service and/or a specialisation. In Medieval Europe, the term "regiment" denoted any large body of front-line soldiers, recruited or conscript ...
. The_regiment_was_composed_almost_entirely_of  American_soldiers_of_Japanese_ancestry._The_regiment_fought_primarily_in_
Italy Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic, ) or the Republic of Italy, is a country in Southern Europe. It is located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, and its territory largely coincides with the homonymous geographical ...
, 
southern_France Southern France, also known as the South of France or colloquially in French as , is a defined geographical area consisting of the regions of France that border the Atlantic Ocean south of the Marais Poitevin,Louis Papy, ''Le midi atlantique'', A ...
_and 
Germany Germany,, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It is the second most populous country in Europe after Russia, and the most populous member state of the European Union. Germany is situated betwee ...
._The_442nd_Regiment_was_the_most_decorated_unit_for_its_size_and_length_of_service_in_American_history. Its_4,000_members_had_to_be_replaced_nearly_2.5_times_due_to_casualties._In_total,_about_14,000_Hawaiians_served,_earning_9,486 
Purple_Heart The Purple Heart (PH) is a United States military decoration awarded in the name of the President to those wounded or killed while serving, on or after 5 April 1917, with the U.S. military. With its forerunner, the Badge of Military Merit, ...
s._The_unit_was_awarded_eight  Presidential_Unit_Citations (five_in_one_month). Twenty-one_of_its_members,_including_Hawaii_U.S._Senator_
Daniel_Inouye Daniel Ken Inouye ( ; September 7, 1924 – December 17, 2012) was an American lawyer and politician who served as a United States senator from Hawaii from 1963 until his death in 2012. Beginning in 1959, he was the first U.S. representative ...
,_were_awarded  Medals_of_Honor. Its_motto_was_"Go_for_Broke".


__Democratic_Party_

In_1954_a_series_of_non-violent_industry-wide_ strikes,_
protests A protest (also called a demonstration, remonstration or remonstrance) is a public expression of objection, disapproval or dissent towards an idea or action, typically a political one. Protests can be thought of as acts of coopera ...
_and_other_
civil_disobedience Civil disobedience is the active, professed refusal of a citizen to obey certain laws, demands, orders or commands of a government (or any other authority). By some definitions, civil disobedience has to be nonviolent to be called "civil". H ...
_transpired._In_the_territorial_elections_of_1954_the_reign_of_the_
Hawaii_Republican_Party The Hawaii Republican Party ( haw, ʻAoʻao Lepupalika o Hawaiʻi) is the affiliate of the Republican Party (GOP) in Hawaii, headquartered in Honolulu. The party was initially strong during Hawaii's territorial days, but following statehood the ...
_in_the_legislature_came_to_an_abrupt_end,_replaced_by_the_
Democratic_Party_of_Hawaii The Democratic Party of Hawaii ( haw, ʻAoʻao Demokalaka o Hawaiʻi) is the affiliate of the Democratic Party in the state of Hawaii. The party is a centralized organization established to promote the party platform as drafted in convention ...
._Democrats_lobbied_for_statehood_and_held_the_governorship_from_1962_to_2002._The_events_also_unionized_the_labor_force,_hastening_the_plantations'_decline.


__Statehood_

President_ Dwight_D._Eisenhower_signed_the_ Hawaii_Admission_Act_on_March_18,_1959,_which_allowed_for_Hawaiian_statehood._After_a_popular_referendum_in_which_over_93%_voted_in_favor_of_statehood,_Hawaii_was_admitted_as_the_50th_state_on_August_21,_1959.


__Annexation_legacy_

For_all_of_recorded_history_prior_to_annexation,_including_all_census_counts_made_during_the_Kingdom_of_Hawaii,_the_number_of_Native_Hawaiians_in_Hawaii_declined.__The_lowest_recorded_number_of_Native_Hawaiians_in_Hawaii_was_37,656_in_the_first_census_conducted_by_the_United_States_in_1900_after_the_annexation_of_Hawaii_to_the_United_States_in_1898.__Since_Hawaii_has_joined_the_United_States_the_Native_Hawaiian_population_in_Hawaii_has_increased_with_every_census_to_289,970_in_2010._ For_many_Native_Hawaiians_ Native_Hawaiians_(also_known_as_Indigenous_Hawaiians,_Kānaka_Maoli,_Aboriginal_Hawaiians,_First_Hawaiians,_or_simply_Hawaiians)_(_haw,_kānaka,_,_,_and_),_are_the__indigenous_ethnic_group_of__Polynesian_people_of_the__Hawaiian_Islands. Hawa_...
,_the_manner_in_which_Hawaii_became_a_U.S._territory_was_illegal.__However,_many_Hawaiians_are_also_proud_to_be_Hawaiians_and_Americans_and_believe_the_manner_in_which_Hawaii_became_a_U.S._State_was_legal.__Hawaii_Territory_governors_and_judges_were_direct_political_appointees_of_the_U.S._President._Native_Hawaiians_created_the_ Home_Rule_Party_to_seek_greater_self-government._The_1960s_
Hawaiian_Renaissance The Hawaiian Renaissance (also called the Hawaiian Cultural Renaissance) was the Hawaiian resurgence of a distinct cultural identity that draws upon traditional kānaka maoli culture, with a significant divergence from the tourism-based culture ...
_led_to_renewed_interest_in_the_
Hawaiian_language Hawaiian (', ) is a Polynesian language of the Austronesian language family that takes its name from Hawaii, the largest island in the tropical North Pacific archipelago where it developed. Hawaiian, along with English, is an official language ...
,_culture_and_identity. With_the_support_of_Hawaii_Senators_
Daniel_Inouye Daniel Ken Inouye ( ; September 7, 1924 – December 17, 2012) was an American lawyer and politician who served as a United States senator from Hawaii from 1963 until his death in 2012. Beginning in 1959, he was the first U.S. representative ...
_and_
Daniel_Akaka Daniel Kahikina Akaka (; September 11, 1924 – April 6, 2018) was an American educator and politician who served as a United States Senate, United States Senator from Hawaii from 1990 to 2013. A member of the Democratic Party (United States), De ...
,_Congress_passed_a_joint_resolution_called_the_"
Apology_Resolution United States Public Law 103-150, informally known as the Apology Resolution, is a Joint Resolution of the U.S. Congress adopted in 1993 that "acknowledges that the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii occurred with the active participation of age ...
"_( US_Public_Law_103-150)._It_was_signed_by_President_
Bill_Clinton William Jefferson Clinton (né Blythe III; born August 19, 1946) is an American politician who served as the 42nd president of the United States from 1993 to 2001. He previously served as governor of Arkansas from 1979 to 1981 and again ...
_on_November_23,_1993._This_resolution_apologized_"to_Native_Hawaiians_on_behalf_of_the_people_of_the_United_States_for_the_overthrow_of_the_Kingdom_of_Hawaii_on_January_17,_1893..._and_the_deprivation_of_the_rights_of_Native_Hawaiians_to_self-determination."_The_implications_of_this_resolution_have_been_extensively_debated.__The_resolution's_description_of_the_history_of_Hawaii_is_also_selective_and_inflammatory_and_has_been_thoroughly_criticized,_ignoring_entirely,_for_example,_the_fact_that_the_overthrow_of_the_Hawaiian_Kingdom_was_led_by_Hawaiian_citizens_on_the_ Committee_of_Safety.__The_resolution_also_fails_to_explain_why_it_would_only_apply_to_Native_Hawaiians_as_defined_as_people_descended_from_persons_living_in_Hawaii_prior_to_Captain_Cook's_arrival_in_1778,_as_opposed_to_all_subjects_of_the_Kingdom,_since_in_theory_all_subjects_would_have_been_the_victims_of_the_overthrow_because_citizenship_in_the_Kingdom_was_not_limited_to_persons_descended_from_people_living_in_Hawaii_prior_to_1778. In_2000,_Akaka_proposed_what_was_called_the_ Akaka_Bill_to_extend_federal_recognition_to_those_of_
Native_Hawaiian Native Hawaiians (also known as Indigenous Hawaiians, Kānaka Maoli, Aboriginal Hawaiians, First Hawaiians, or simply Hawaiians) ( haw, kānaka, , , and ), are the indigenous ethnic group of Polynesian people of the Hawaiian Islands. Hawa ...
_ancestry_as_a_sovereign_group_similar_to_ Native_American_tribes._The_bill_did_not_pass_before_his_retirement.


_See_also

*_ Women's_suffrage_in_Hawaii * Legal_status_of_Hawaii *_
List_of_conflicts_in_Hawaii This is a list of wars, bloodless wars, battles, conspiracies, rebellions, revolutions, nonviolent revolutions, massacres, and terrorist attacks in the Hawaiian Islands. Ancient Warfare There were many ancient Hawaiian battles and wars throug ...
*_
List_of_Missionaries_to_Hawaii This is a list of missionaries to Hawaii. Before European exploration, the Hawaiian religion was brought from Tahiti by Paʻao according to oral tradition. Notable missionaries with written records below are generally Christian. Protestant Ame ...
*_
National_Register_of_Historic_Places_listings_in_Hawaii This is a list of properties and historic districts in Hawaii listed on the National Register of Historic Places. More than 340 listings appear on all but one of Hawaii's main islands ( Niihau being the exception) and the Northwestern Islands ...
*_ Timeline_of_Honolulu


_References


_Bibliography

*_Beechert,_Edward_D._''Working_in_Hawaii:_A_labor_history''_(University_of_Hawaii_Press,_1985). *_Craig,_Robert_D._''Historical_dictionary_of_Honolulu_and_Hawaiʻi''_(Scarecrow_Press,_1998). *_ *_Fuchs,_Lawrence_H._''Hawaii_Pono:_'Hawaii_the_Excellent':_An_Ethnic_and_Political_History.''_(1961). *_Haley,_James_L._''Captive_Paradise:_A_History_of_Hawaii''_(St._Martin's_Press,_2014). *_Kuykendall,_Ralph_Simpson,_and_Arthur_Grove_Day._''Hawaii:_a_history,_from_Polynesian_kingdom_to_American_state''_(Prentice_Hall,_1961)_als
online_1926_edition
*_La_Croix,_Sumner._''_Hawai’i:_Eight_Hundred_Years_of_Political_and_Economic_Change''_(U_of_Chicago_Press,_2019)_309_pp.
EH.net_online_review_by_Lee_J._Alston
*_La_Croix,_Sumner._"Economic_history_of_Hawai‘i."_''Oxford_Research_Encyclopedia_of_Economics_and_Finance''_(2021) *_Tabrah,_Ruth_M._''Hawaii:_a_history''_(WW_Norton_&_Company,_1984). *_Wyndette,_Olive._''Islands_of_Destiny:_A_History_of_Hawaii''_(1968).


__Specialty_studies

*_Aquino,_Belinda
''The_Filipino_Century_in_Hawaii:_Out_of_the_Crucible''
(2006). *_Brown,_DeSoto_and_Anne_Ellett._''Hawaii_goes_to_war:_life_in_Hawaii_from_Pearl_Harbor_to_peace''_(1989). *_Chapin,_Helen._''Shaping_history:_The_role_of_newspapers_in_Hawai'i''_(University_of_Hawaii_Press,_1996). *_Cochran,_Thomas_C._and_Ray_Ginger._"The_American-Hawaiian_Steamship_Company,_1899–1919,"_''Business_History_Review''_(1954)._28#4,_pp. 342–365. *_Forbes,_David_W._''Encounters_with_paradise:_views_of_Hawaii_and_its_people,_1778–1941''_(Honolulu_Academy_of_Arts,_1992). *_Greenlee,_John_Wyatt._"Eight_Islands_on_Four_Maps:_The_Cartographic_Renegotiation_of_Hawai'i,_1876-1959."_''Cartographica''_50,_3_(2015),_119–140
online
*_MacLennan,_Carol_A._''Sovereign_Sugar,_Industry_and_Environment_in_Hawaii''_(2014)._ *_Mak,_James._"Creating_'Paradise_of_the_Pacific':_How_Tourism_Began_in_Hawaii."_(No._2015-1._2015
online
_82pp *_Melendy,_Howard_Brett,_and_Rhoda_E.A._Hackler._''Hawaii,_America's_Sugar_Territory,_1898–1959''_(
Lewiston,_New_York Lewiston is a town in Niagara County, New York, United States. The population was 15,944 at the 2020 census. The town and its contained village are named after Morgan Lewis, a governor of New York. The Town of Lewiston is on the western bord ...
:_
Edwin_Mellen_Press The Edwin Mellen Press or Mellen Press is an international independent company and academic publishing house with editorial offices in Lewiston, New York, and Lampeter, Wales. It was founded, in 1972, by the religious studies scholar Profess ...
,_1999). *_Melendy,_Howard_Brett._''Walter_Francis_Dillingham,_1875–1963:_Hawaiian_Entrepreneur_and_Statesman''_(
Lewiston,_New_York Lewiston is a town in Niagara County, New York, United States. The population was 15,944 at the 2020 census. The town and its contained village are named after Morgan Lewis, a governor of New York. The Town of Lewiston is on the western bord ...
:_
Edwin_Mellen_Press The Edwin Mellen Press or Mellen Press is an international independent company and academic publishing house with editorial offices in Lewiston, New York, and Lampeter, Wales. It was founded, in 1972, by the religious studies scholar Profess ...
,_1996). *_Morgan,_William_Michael._"The_Anti-Japanese_Origins_of_the_Hawaiian_Annexation_Treaty_Of_1897"_''Diplomatic_History''._(1982)_6#1_pp_23-44. **_Morgan,_William_Michael.__''Pacific_Gibraltar:_U.S.-Japanese_Rivalry_Over_the_Annexation_of_Hawaii,_1885-1898''_(Naval_Institute_Press,_2011).__Se
_online_review_by_Kenneth_R._Conklin,_PhD
*_ *_Rohrer,_Judy._''Haoles_in_Hawai'i''_(2010),_124ff.;_scholarly_survey *_Russ,_William_Adam._''The_Hawaiian_Revolution_(1893-94)''_(1992) *_Russ,_William_Adam._''The_Hawaiian_Republic_(1894–98)_and_its_struggle_to_win_annexation''_(Susquehanna_U_Press,_1992). *_Schmitt,_Robert_C._''Historical_Statistics_of_Hawaii''_(University_Press_of_Hawaii,_1977)._ *_Schmitt,_Robert_C._"Religious_statistics_of_Hawaii,_1825-1972."_''_Hawaiian_Journal_of_History''_(1973),_Vol._7,_pp_41-47. *_Schmitt,_Robert_C._''Demographic_Statistics_of_Hawaii."_Demographic_Statistics_of_Hawaii''_(University_of_Hawaii_Press,_2021). *_Siler,_Julia_Flynn._''Lost_Kingdom:_Hawaii's_Last_Queen,_the_Sugar_Kings_and_America's_First_Imperial_Adventure''_(2012). *_Sumida,_Stephen_H._''And_the_View_from_the_Shore:_Literary_Traditions_of_Hawai'i''_(University_of_Washington_Press,_2015). *_Teodoro,_Luis_V.,_ed._''Out_of_this_struggle:_The_Filipinos_in_Hawaii''_(U._University_of_Hawaii_Press,_2019). *_Tregaskis,_Richard._''The_warrior_king:_Hawaii's_Kamehameha_the_Great''_(1973). *_ *_Wilson,_Rob._"Exporting_Christian_Transcendentalism,_Importing_Hawaiian_Sugar:_The_Trans-Americanization_of_Hawai'i."_''American_Literature''_72#.3_(2000):_521–552


_External_links


Audio_of_Dwight_D._Eisenhower_Hawaii_Statehood_Proclamation_Speech






_by_Chris_Cook_in_''The_Islander_Magazine''

in_''The_Islander_Magazine''
Today_in_Hawai`i_History
*_ *_ *_ {{Authority_control _html" ;"title="] Līloa was the first born son of Kiha nui lulu moku, one of the ''noho aliʻi'' (ruling elite). He descended from Hāna laʻa nui. Līloa's mother, Waioloa, his grandmother, Neʻula and great grandmother, Laʻa kapu were of the ʻEwa Beach, Hawaii, ʻEwa aliʻi lines of
Oahu Oahu () ( Hawaiian: ''Oʻahu'' ()), also known as "The Gathering Place", is the third-largest of the Hawaiian Islands. It is home to roughly one million people—over two-thirds of the population of the U.S. state of Hawaii. The island of O ...
. Liloa's father ruled Hawaii as ''aliʻi nui'' and upon his death elevated Līloa. Kiha had had four other sons, Kaunuamoa, Makaoku, Kepailiula and Hoolana, whose descendants are the Kaiakea family of
Molokai Molokai , or Molokai (), is the fifth most populated of the eight major islands that make up the Hawaiian Islands archipelago in the middle of the Pacific Ocean. It is 38 by 10 miles (61 by 16 km) at its greatest length and width with a us ...
, distant relatives of Abraham Fornander's daughter. In his book,
David Malo David Malo or Davida Malo (1795–1853) was a chiefly counselor, a Hawaiian intellectual, educator, politician and minister. He is remembered by subsequent generations of Hawaiian people and scholars primarily as a Native Hawaiian historian of the ...
described how Liloa originated the practice of ''moe āikane'', the sexual relationship between males. The relationships had no social stigma and were accepted practice beginning with the alii and then copied by the other classes. Warriors engaged in the practice. The relationships cannot be defined as
bisexuality Bisexuality is a romantic or sexual attraction or behavior toward both males and females, or to more than one gender. It may also be defined to include romantic or sexual attraction to people regardless of their sex or gender identity, ...
. In many cases, the men involved felt it an honor and responsibility to honor their ''hana lawelawe''.


Hākau

Just before his death, Liloa bestowed on Hākau the succession as Chief, telling Umi that he was to serve as his "man" (Prime Minister) and that both were to respect the other and should either have issue with the other it would be for them to decide. At first a decent king, Hākau soon became brutal. To avoid his brother's anger, 'Umi exiled himself to another district. Hākau refused to help Nunu and Ka-hohe, his father's two favorite, ailing Kahuna who had requested food. This was considered highly insulting. The two were of the priestly class of the god
Lono In Hawaiian religion, the god Lono is associated with fertility, agriculture, rainfall, music and peace. In one of the many Hawaiian stories of Lono, he is a fertility and music god who descended to Earth on a rainbow to marry Laka. In agricultu ...
. They resented their treatment and plotted to see the kingdom in someone else's hand. Hākau did not believe the priests to have any power and disrespected them as 'Umi was the spiritual authority This was a period in when no King could defy a Kahuna. Many had a royal bloodline, land and could leave their temples as warriors when needed, but could never relinquish their spiritual responsibilities. Through a messenger of Kaoleioku, of Waipunalei, the high-priest of the temple of Manini, at Koholalele the two priests contacted Umi's court. The two priests traveled to Waipunalei where they supported Umi's revolt. When Hākau received news that his brother was preparing to war against him, he sent his main forces out to immediately prepare by seeking feathers to adorn their war regalia. After the warriors had left and Hākau was undefended, Umi's warriors came forward with a deception that they were there with bundles of offerings for the king. When the bundles were dropped to the ground they were filled with rocks they used to stone Hākau to death.


ʻUmi-a-Līloa

ʻUmi-a-Līloa was a ruling ''aliʻi ai moku'' (district high chief of Hawai'i). He became chief after the death of his half brother Hākau and was considered a just ruler, religious and the first to unite almost all of the Big Island. The legend of ʻUmi-a-Līloa is one of the most popular hero sagas in Hawaiian history. ʻUmi's wife was
Princess Princess is a regal rank and the feminine equivalent of prince (from Latin '' princeps'', meaning principal citizen). Most often, the term has been used for the consort of a prince, or for the daughter of a king or prince. Princess as a subs ...
Piʻikea Piʻikea (Hawaiian: ''piʻi'' = "to ascend", ''ke'' = "the", ''ea'' = "life"; "the life ascends") was a High Chiefess. She was a daughter of Piʻilani and Queen La’ieloheloheikawai and sister of Lono-a-Piilani and Kiha-a-Piilani. Piʻilani built ...
, daughter of Piʻilani. They had one son,
Kumalae Kumalae was a Hawaiian High Chief, ''Aliʻi Nui'' (ruler) of Hilo. He is also known as Kumalae-nui-a-ʻUmi ("Kumalae the Great, son of ʻUmi"). Family He was born about 1648. His father was ʻUmi-a-Liloa, ''Aliʻi Aimoku'' of Hawaiʻi. His mo ...
and one daughter, Aihākōkō. Liloa told Akahi that, if she were to have a male child, she should present the boy to him along with royal tokens he gave her as gifts, to prove her boy was the son of the king. Akahi hid the tokens from her husband and later gave birth to a son. At the age of 15 or 16, his stepfather was punishing the boy when his mother intervened and told the man not to touch him because the boy was his lord and chief. She uncovered the tokens to present to her husband to prove the high treason he would have committed. Akahi gave her son the royal malo and
lei niho palaoa A ''lei niho palaoa'' is a Hawaiian neck ornament traditionally worn by ''aliʻi'' (chiefs) of both sexes. The 19th century examples are most commonly made of a whale tooth carved into a hook-shape suspended by plaited human hair. The symbolism ...
given to her by 'Umi's biological father. Only high chiefs wore these items. She sent 'Umi to Waipiʻo Valley to present himself to the king as his son. Liloa's palace was guarded and attended by several
Kahuna ''Kahuna'' is a Hawaiian language, Hawaiian word that refers to an expert in any field. Historically, it has been used to refer to doctors, surgeons and dentists, as well as priests, ministers, and sorcerers. Background A ''kahuna'' may be ver ...
. The entire enclosure was sacred. Entering without permission carried the death penalty. Umi entered the enclosure with attendants afraid to stop someone wearing the royal insignia and walked straight to Liloa's sleeping quarters, waking him there. When Liloa asked who he was, he said "It is I, 'Umi your son". He then placed the tokens at his father's feet and Liloa proclaimed him to be his son. After learning of 'Umi, Hākau became upset. Liloa assured his first born that he would be king after his death and his brother would serve him. 'Umi was brought to court on an equal footing with Hākau. Living within Liloa's court alongside his brother, Umi found great favor from his father, increasing Hākau's dislike. In exile, 'Umi took wives and began building forces and followers. Chiefs began to believe him to be of the highest chiefly nature from signs they observed. He gave food to people and became known for caring for all. After Hākau's death the other aliʻi of the island claimed their districts for themselves. 'Umi took the advice of the two priests by marrying many woman of high noble rank, including his half sister Kapukini and the daughter of the ruler of Hilo, where he had been given sanctuary during Hākau's reign. Eventually Umi conquered the entire island. After unifying the island of Hawaii, 'Umi was faithful to those who had supported him, and allowed his three most faithful companions, and the two Kahuna who had aided him, to help him govern.


Aikāne

'' Aikāne'' relationships or (mostly male) homosexual or bisexual activity in the pre-colonial era was an accepted tradition. These relationships were accepted as part of
ancient Hawaii Ancient Hawaii is the period of Hawaiian history preceding the unification in 1810 of the Kingdom of Hawaii by Kamehameha the Great. Traditionally, researchers estimated the first settlement of the Hawaiian islands as having occurred sporadicall ...
an culture. Such sexual relationships may begin in the teens and continue thereafter, even though they have heterosexual partners. The Hawaiian ''aikāne'' relationship was a part of Hawaiian noble life, including that of Kamehameha I. Some myths refer to women's desires and therefore some women may have been involved in ''aikāne'' relationships as well. Lieutenant James King stated that "all the chiefs had them" and recounts a tale that
James Cook James Cook (7 November 1728 Old Style date: 27 October – 14 February 1779) was a British explorer, navigator, cartographer, and captain in the British Royal Navy, famous for his three voyages between 1768 and 1779 in the Pacific Ocean and ...
was actually asked by one chief to leave Lt. King behind, considering such offer a great honor. Members of Cook's crew related tales of the tradition with great disdain. American adventurer and sailor John Ledyard commented in detail about the tradition.


Land division system

Land was divided up in strict adherence to the wishes of the ''Ali‘i Nui''. The traditional system of land has four hierarchical levels: *''mokupuni'' (island) *''moku'' (subdivisions of an island) *''ahupuaʻa (''subdivision of ''moku'') *''ʻili'' (two or three per ahupuaʻa, but
Kahoolawe Kahoolawe (Hawaiian: ), anglicized as Kahoolawe (), is the smallest of the eight main volcanic islands in the Hawaiian Islands. Kahoolawe is located about southwest of Maui and also southeast of Lānaʻi, and it is long by wide, with a total l ...
for example had eight) Some oral history relates that ʻUmi a Līloa created the ahupuaʻa system. The system exploited the fact that communities were already organized along stream systems. The community governance system of Kānāwai is attributed specifically to shared water usage. The Hawaiian agricultural system contained two major classes; irrigated and rain-fed (dryland) systems. Irrigated systems mainly supported
taro Taro () (''Colocasia esculenta)'' is a root vegetable. It is the most widely cultivated species of several plants in the family Araceae that are used as vegetables for their corms, leaves, and petioles. Taro corms are a food staple in Afri ...
(''kalo'') cultivation. Rain-fed systems were known as the ''mala.'' There they cultivated uala (
sweet potato The sweet potato or sweetpotato ('' Ipomoea batatas'') is a dicotyledonous plant that belongs to the bindweed or morning glory family, Convolvulaceae. Its large, starchy, sweet-tasting tuberous roots are used as a root vegetable. The young ...
es), yams, and dryland taro along with coconuts (''niu''),
breadfruit Breadfruit (''Artocarpus altilis'') is a species of flowering tree in the mulberry and jackfruit family ( Moraceae) believed to be a domesticated descendant of '' Artocarpus camansi'' originating in New Guinea, the Maluku Islands, and the Phil ...
(''ʻulu''), bananas (''maiʻa'') and
sugarcane Sugarcane or sugar cane is a species of (often hybrid) tall, perennial grass (in the genus '' Saccharum'', tribe Andropogoneae) that is used for sugar production. The plants are 2–6 m (6–20 ft) tall with stout, jointed, fibrous stalk ...
(''ko''). The kukui tree (''
Aleurites moluccanus ''Aleurites moluccanus'', the candlenut, is a flowering tree in the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae, also known as candleberry, Indian walnut, ''kemiri'', varnish tree, ''nuez de la India'', ''buah keras'', ''godou'', kukui nut tree, and ''rata k ...
'') was sometimes used as a shade to protect the ''mala'' from the sun. Each crop was carefully placed in an area most suitable to its needs. Hawaiians domesticated dogs, chickens and pigs. They also grew personal gardens at home. Water was a very important part of Hawaiian life; it was used for fishing, bathing, drinking, and gardening, and for
aquaculture Aquaculture (less commonly spelled aquiculture), also known as aquafarming, is the controlled cultivation ("farming") of aquatic organisms such as fish, crustaceans, mollusks, algae and other organisms of value such as aquatic plants (e.g. lot ...
systems in the rivers and at the shore's edge. Ahupuaʻa most frequently consisted of a section of an island that went from the top of the local mountain to the shore, often following the boundary of a stream. Each ahupuaʻa included a lowland ''mala'' and upland forested region.Losch, Tracie, and Momi Kamahele, "Hawaii: Center of the Pacific" (Pearl City: University of Hawaii Leeward Community College, 2008) Ahupuaʻa varied in size depending on the economic means of the location and political divisions of the area. "As the native Hawaiians used the resources within their ahupuaʻa, they practiced ''aloha'' (respect), ''laulima'' (cooperation) and ''malama'' (stewardship) which resulted in a desirable ''pono'' (balance)". The Hawaiians believed that the land, the sea, the clouds and all of nature had a certain interconnectedness which is why they used all of the resources around them to reach the desired balance in life. Sustainability was maintained by the
konohiki A ''konohiki'' is a headman of a land division or ahupuaʻa of the Kingdom of Hawaii who administered the land ruled by an aliʻi chief. Background The lands of the ruling chiefs of Hawaii were divided into radial divisions of land when possible. ...
and kahuna: priests, who restricted the fishing of certain species during specific seasons. They also regulated the gathering of plants. The term "ahupuaʻa" is derived from the Hawaiian words ''ahu'' "heap, cairn" and ''puaʻa'' " pig". The boundary markers for ahupuaʻa were traditionally heaps of stones used to hold offers to the island chief, which was often a pig. Each ahupuaʻa was divided into smaller sections called ''ʻili'' and the ''ʻili'' were divided into ''kuleana''. These were individual plots of land that were cultivated by commoners who paid labor taxes to the land overseer each week. These taxes went to support the chief. Two possible reasons for this subdivision have been offered: *travel: in many areas of Hawaiʻi, it is easier to travel up- and downstream than from stream valley to stream valley. *economy: having all climate and economic exploitation zones in each land division ensured that each could be self-sufficient for a large portion of its needs.


Governance

The Kingdom was administered by an ali'i chief. Divisions were under the control of other smaller chiefs and managed by a steward. The headman of a land division or ahupua`a is a ''konohiki''. ''Mokus'' were ruled by an ''aliʻi ʻaimoku''. ''Ahupua'as were'' run by a headman or chief called a
Konohiki A ''konohiki'' is a headman of a land division or ahupuaʻa of the Kingdom of Hawaii who administered the land ruled by an aliʻi chief. Background The lands of the ruling chiefs of Hawaii were divided into radial divisions of land when possible. ...
.


Konohiki

In Keelikolani vs Robinson, ''kononiki'' is defined as a
Land Agent Land agent may be used in at least three different contexts. Traditionally, a land agent was a managerial employee who conducted the business affairs of a large landed estate for a member of the landed gentry, supervising the farming of the prop ...
. In Territory vs Bishop Trust Co. LTD., when the agent was appointed by a chief, they were referred to as ''konohiki''. The term could also be a designated area of land owned privately as compared to being owned by the government. A chief of lands retained life tenure on the land even after being discharged from the position, but a head man overseeing the same land had no such protection. Often '' ali'i'' and ''konohiki'' are treated synonymously. However, while most ''konohiki'' were ''ali'i'' nobility, not all ''ali'i'' were ''konohiki''. The Hawaiian dictionary defines ''konohiki'' as a headman of a land division, but also to describe fishing rights. ''Kono'' means to entice or prompt. ''Hiki'' refers to something that can be done. The ''konohiki'' was a relative of the ''ali'i'' and oversaw the property, managing
water rights Water right in water law refers to the right of a user to use water from a water source, e.g., a river, stream, pond or source of groundwater. In areas with plentiful water and few users, such systems are generally not complicated or contentiou ...
, land distribution,
agricultural Agriculture or farming is the practice of cultivating plants and livestock. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that enabled peopl ...
use and any maintenance. The ''konohiki'' also ensured that the right amounts of gifts and tribute were properly made at the right times. As
capitalism Capitalism is an economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and their operation for profit. Central characteristics of capitalism include capital accumulation, competitive markets, price system, private ...
was incorporated into the kingdom, the konohiki became tax collectors, landlords and fishery wardens.


Breaking of the Kapu

In a triumph for women's equality, Hawaiians overthrew the kapu religious theocracy in 1819 by themselves, before the arrival of American missionaries and without the support of western powers like Great Britain, France, or the United States. On October 4, 1819, Kamehameha II, who became king after the death of his father Kamehameha I (the founder of the Hawaiian Kingdom), ate dinner with Queen Ka‘ahumanu, Kamehameha I’s favored wife, and Queen Keopuolani, the mother of Kamehameha II. The prohibition on men and women eating together, the ‘ai kapu, was one of the most ancient kapus or prohibitions: the penalty for its violation was death. Queen Ka‘ahumanu, however, despised the prohibition as it prevented her from entering certain religious temples where men made political decisions over meals. Queen Keopuolani also violated the prohibition even before the public breaking. Violating the ‘ai kapu at a public dinner, as Kamehameha II did, was a clear signal that the kapu system was abolished given Kamehameha II’s status as King, Kahamumanu’s status as Queen Regent, and Keopuolani’s status as Queen. The guests at the dinner cried out “‘ai noa! ” (free eating). Afterwards, Kamehameha II – with the support of his high priest Hewahewa – ordered the destruction of the ancient heiau temples. After the breaking of the kapu, a brief civil war then broke out, with Kamehameha I’s nephew, Kekuaokalani, opposing. Kekuaokalani’s forces were defeated by Kamehameha II’s at Kuamo‘o. The victory by Kamehameha II’s forces established, as a matter of Hawaiian political history, that no Hawaiian could impose kapu prohibitions on another ever again.


Contact

Captain
James Cook James Cook (7 November 1728 Old Style date: 27 October – 14 February 1779) was a British explorer, navigator, cartographer, and captain in the British Royal Navy, famous for his three voyages between 1768 and 1779 in the Pacific Ocean and ...
(1728-1779) led three separate voyages (1768-1779) to chart unknown areas of the globe for Great Britain. On his third voyage he encountered Hawaii, first sighting the islands on 18 January 1778. He anchored off the coast of Kauai and met with the local inhabitants to trade and obtain water and food for his continued voyage. On 2 February 1778, Cook continued on to the coast of the North American continent, searching for a
Northwest Passage The Northwest Passage (NWP) is the sea route between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans through the Arctic Ocean, along the northern coast of North America via waterways through the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. The eastern route along the ...
for approximately nine months. He returned to the Hawaii chain to resupply, initially exploring the coasts of Maui and Hawaii Island to trade. He anchored in
Kealakekua Bay Kealakekua Bay is located on the Kona coast of the island of Hawaii about south of Kailua-Kona. Settled over a thousand years ago, the surrounding area contains many archeological and historical sites such as religious temples (heiaus) and al ...
in January 1779. After departing Kealakekua, he returned in February 1779 after a ship's mast broke in bad weather. On the night of 13 February, while Cook's expedition lay anchored in the bay, Hawaiians stole one of his only two
longboat A longboat is a type of ship's boat that was in use from ''circa'' 1500 or before. Though the Royal Navy replaced longboats with launches from 1780, examples can be found in merchant ships after that date. The longboat was usually the largest boa ...
s (lifeboats used to ferry to/from ship/shore). In retaliation, Cook tried to kidnap the ''aliʻi nui'' of Hawaii Island,
Kalaniʻōpuʻu Kalaniōpuu-a-Kaiamamao (c. 1729 – April 1782) was the aliʻi nui (supreme monarch) of the island of Hawaiʻi. He was called ''Terreeoboo, King of Owhyhee'' by James Cook and other Europeans. His name has also been written as Kaleiopuu. Bio ...
. On 14 February 1779 Cook confronted an angry crowd. Kanaʻina approached Cook, who reacted by striking the royal attendant with the broad side of his sword. Kanaʻina picked up the navigator and dropped him while another attendant, Nuaa, killed Cook with a knife.


Kingdom of Hawaii

The Kingdom of Hawaii lasted from 1795 until its overthrow in 1893 with the fall of the House of Kalakaua.


House of Kamehameha

The ''House of Kamehameha'' ''(Hale O Kamehameha)'', or the ''Kamehameha dynasty'', was the reigning Royal Family of the
Kingdom of Hawaii The Hawaiian Kingdom, or Kingdom of Hawaiʻi ( Hawaiian: ''Ko Hawaiʻi Pae ʻĀina''), was a sovereign state located in the Hawaiian Islands. The country was formed in 1795, when the warrior chief Kamehameha the Great, of the independent islan ...
, beginning with its founding by
Kamehameha I Kamehameha I (; Kalani Paiea Wohi o Kaleikini Kealiikui Kamehameha o Iolani i Kaiwikapu kaui Ka Liholiho Kūnuiākea;  – May 8 or 14, 1819), also known as Kamehameha the Great, was the conqueror and first ruler of the Kingdom of Hawaii. Th ...
in 1795 and ending with the deaths of
Kamehameha V Kamehameha V (Lota Kapuāiwa Kalanimakua Aliʻiōlani Kalanikupuapaʻīkalaninui; December 11, 1830 – December 11, 1872), reigned as the fifth monarch of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi from 1863 to 1872. His motto was "Onipaʻa": immovable, firm, s ...
in 1872 and
William Charles Lunalilo Lunalilo (William Charles Lunalilo; January 31, 1835 – February 3, 1874) was the sixth monarch of the Hawaiian Kingdom, Kingdom of Hawaii from his election on January 8, 1873, until his death a year later. Born to Kekāuluohi and Charles Kana ...
in 1874. The origins of the House of Kamehameha can be traced to half brothers,
Kalaniʻōpuʻu Kalaniōpuu-a-Kaiamamao (c. 1729 – April 1782) was the aliʻi nui (supreme monarch) of the island of Hawaiʻi. He was called ''Terreeoboo, King of Owhyhee'' by James Cook and other Europeans. His name has also been written as Kaleiopuu. Bio ...
and Keōua. Kalaniʻōpuʻu's father was Kalaninuiʻīamamao while Keōua's father was
Kalanikeʻeaumoku Kalanikeʻeaumoku was an aliʻi (noble) of Hawaii (island) of the Kona district and part of Kohala district and grandfather of Kamehameha I. Family His mother was Kalanikauleleiaiwi and his father was Keaweʻīkekahialiʻiokamoku. He would ' ...
, both sons of
Keaweʻīkekahialiʻiokamoku Keaweīkekahialiiokamoku (c. 1665 – c. 1725) was the king of Hawaii Island in the late 17th century. He was the great-grandfather of Kamehameha I, the first king of the Kingdom of Hawaii. He was a progenitor of the House of Keawe. Biography He ...
. They shared a common mother,
Kamakaʻīmoku Kamakaʻīmoku was a chiefess in ancient Hawaii in the early 18th century. She married three powerful men of the time, was mother of the King who would unite the island of Hawaii and meet the first known visitors from Europe, and grandmother of ...
. Both brothers served Alapaʻinui, the ruling King of Hawaii Island. Hawaiian genealogy notes that Keōua may not have been Kamehameha's biological father, and that
Kahekili II Kahekili II, full name Kahekilinuiʻahumanu, (c. 1737–1794) was an ali'i (''Moʻi'') of Maui. His name was short for Kāne-Hekili after the Hawaiian god of thunder. Because Kāne-Hekili was believed to be black on one side, Kahekili tattooed on ...
might have been his biological father. Regardless, Kamehameha I's descent from Keawe remains intact through his mother, Kekuʻiapoiwa II, a granddaughter of Keawe. Keōua acknowledged him as his son and this relationship is recognized by official genealogies. The traditional mele chant of Keaka, wife of Alapainui, indicates that Kamehameha I was born in the month of ''ikuwā'' (winter) around November. Alapai gave the young Kamehameha to his wife Keaka and her sister Hākau to care for after the ruler discovered the boy had lived. Samuel Kamakau, wrote, ''"It was during the time of the warfare among the chiefs of he island ofHawaii which followed the death of Keawe, chief over the whole island (Ke-awe-i-kekahi-aliʻi-o-ka-moku) that Kamehameha I was born"''. However, his general dating was challenged. Abraham Fornander wrote, ''"when Kamehameha died in 1819 he was past eighty years old. His birth would thus fall between 1736 and 1740, probably nearer the former than the latter"''. William De Witt Alexander lists the birth date as 1736. He was first named Paiea but took the name Kamehameha, meaning "The very lonely one" or "The one set alone". Kamehameha's uncle Kalaniʻōpuʻu raised him after Keōua's death. Kalaniʻōpuʻu ruled Hawaii as did his grandfather Keawe. He had advisors and priests. When word reached the ruler that chiefs were planning to murder the boy, he told Kamehameha: After Kalaniʻōpuʻu's death, Kīwalaʻō took his father's place as first born and ruled the island while Kamehameha became the religious authority. Some chiefs supported Kamehameha and war soon broke out to overthrow Kīwalaʻō. After multiple battles the king was killed and envoys sent for the last two brothers to meet with Kamehameha. Keōua and Kaōleiokū arrived in separate canoes. Keōua came to shore first where a fight broke out and he and all aboard were killed. Before the same could happen to the second canoe, Kamehameha intervened. In 1793 Captain
George Vancouver Captain George Vancouver (22 June 1757 – 10 May 1798) was a British Royal Navy officer best known for his 1791–1795 expedition, which explored and charted North America's northwestern Pacific Coast regions, including the coasts of what are ...
sailed from Britain and presented the
Union Flag The Union Jack, or Union Flag, is the ''de facto'' national flag of the United Kingdom. Although no law has been passed making the Union Flag the official national flag of the United Kingdom, it has effectively become such through precedent. ...
to Kamehameha, who was still in the process of uniting the islands into a single state; the Union Jack flew unofficially as the flag of Hawaii until 1816, including during a brief spell of British rule after Kamehameha ceded Hawaii to Vancouver in 1794. By 1795, Kamehameha had conquered all but one of the main islands. For his first royal residence, the new King built the first western-style structure in the
Hawaiian Islands The Hawaiian Islands ( haw, Nā Mokupuni o Hawai‘i) are an archipelago of eight major islands, several atolls, and numerous smaller islets in the North Pacific Ocean, extending some from the island of Hawaii in the south to northernmost ...
, known as the "
Brick Palace The Brick Palace was the first western-style structure built in the Hawaiian Islands for Kamehameha the Great to serve as the first Royal Palace. Lahaina became the seat of government for the Hawaiian Kingdom until 1845. The king commissioned the ...
". The location became the
seat of government The seat of government is (as defined by ''Brewer's Politics'') "the building, complex of buildings or the city from which a government exercises its authority". In most countries, the nation’s capital is also seat of its government, thus that ...
for the
Hawaiian Kingdom The Hawaiian Kingdom, or Kingdom of Hawaiʻi (Hawaiian language, Hawaiian: ''Ko Hawaiʻi Pae ʻĀina''), was a sovereign state located in the Hawaiian Islands. The country was formed in 1795, when the warrior chief Kamehameha the Great, of the ...
until 1845. The king commissioned the structure to be built at Keawa'iki point in Lahaina, Maui. Two ex-convicts from
Australia Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a sovereign country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands. With an area of , Australia is the largest country by ...
's
Botany Bay Botany Bay ( Dharawal: ''Kamay''), an open oceanic embayment, is located in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia, south of the Sydney central business district. Its source is the confluence of the Georges River at Taren Point and the Cook ...
penal colony built the home. It was begun in 1798 and was completed after 4 years in 1802. The house was intended for
Kaʻahumanu Kaahumanu (March 17, 1768 – June 5, 1832) (''"the feathered mantle"'') was queen consort and acted as regent of the Kingdom of Hawaii as Kuhina Nui. She was the favorite wife of King Kamehameha I and also the most politically powerful, ...
, but she refused to live in the structure and resided instead in an adjacent, traditional Hawaiian-styled home. Kamehameha I had many wives but held two in the highest regard. Keōpūolani was the highest ranking aliʻi of her time and mother to his sons, Liholiho and Kauikeaouli. Kaʻahumanu was his favorite. Kamehameha I died in 1819, succeeded by Liholiho.


Kamehameha II

After Kamehameha I's death, Liholiho left Kailua for a week and returned to be crowned king. At the lavish ceremony attended by commoners and nobles he approached the circle of chiefs, as Kaʻahumanu, the central figure in the group and Dowager Queen, said, ''"Hear me O Divine one, for I make known to you the will of your father. Behold these chiefs and the men of your father, and these your guns, and this your land, but you and I shall share the realm together".'' Liholiho agreed officially, which began a unique system of dual-government consisting of a King and co-ruler similar to a
regent A regent (from Latin : ruling, governing) is a person appointed to govern a state '' pro tempore'' (Latin: 'for the time being') because the monarch is a minor, absent, incapacitated or unable to discharge the powers and duties of the monarchy ...
. Kamehameha II shared his rule with his stepmother, Kaʻahumanu. She defied Hawaiian ''kapu'' by dining with the young king, separating the sexes during meals, leading to the end of the
Hawaiian religion Hawaiian religion refers to the indigenous religious beliefs and practices of native Hawaiians, also known as the kapu system. Hawaiian religion is based largely on the tapu religion common in Polynesia and likely originated among the Tahitia ...
. Kamehameha II died, along with his wife, Queen Kamāmalu in 1824 on a state visit to England, succumbing to
measles Measles is a highly contagious infectious disease caused by measles virus. Symptoms usually develop 10–12 days after exposure to an infected person and last 7–10 days. Initial symptoms typically include fever, often greater than , cough, ...
. He was King for 5 years. The couple's remains were returned to Hawaii by Boki. Aboard the ship ''The Blond'' his wife Liliha and Kekūanāoʻa were
baptized Baptism (from grc-x-koine, βάπτισμα, váptisma) is a form of ritual purification—a characteristic of many religions throughout time and geography. In Christianity, it is a Christian sacrament of initiation and adoption, almost i ...
as Christians. Kaʻahumanu also converted and became a powerful Christian influence on Hawaiian society until her death in 1832. Since the new king was only 12 years old, Kaʻahumanu was now senior ruler and named Boki as her
Kuhina Nui Kuhina Nui was a powerful office in the Kingdom of Hawaii from 1819 to 1864. It was usually held by a relative of the king and was the rough equivalent of the 19th-century European office of Prime Minister or sometimes Regent. Origin of the offi ...
. Boki left Hawaii on a trip to find
sandalwood Sandalwood is a class of woods from trees in the genus '' Santalum''. The woods are heavy, yellow, and fine-grained, and, unlike many other aromatic woods, they retain their fragrance for decades. Sandalwood oil is extracted from the woods for ...
to cover a debt and was lost at sea. His wife, Liliha took the governorship of
Maui The island of Maui (; Hawaiian: ) is the second-largest of the islands of the state of Hawaii at 727.2 square miles (1,883 km2) and is the 17th largest island in the United States. Maui is the largest of Maui County's four islands, whic ...
and unsuccessfully attempted to whip up a revolt against Kaʻahumanu, who upon Boki's departure, had installed
Kīnaʻu Princess Kalani Ahumanu i Kaliko o Iwi Kauhipua o Kīnau, also known as Elizabeth Kīnau ( – April 4, 1839) was Kuhina Nui of the Kingdom of Hawaii as Kaahumanu II, Queen regent and Dowager Queen. Life Her father was King Kamehameha I and he ...
as a co-governor.


Kaʻahumanu

Kaʻahumanu was born on
Maui The island of Maui (; Hawaiian: ) is the second-largest of the islands of the state of Hawaii at 727.2 square miles (1,883 km2) and is the 17th largest island in the United States. Maui is the largest of Maui County's four islands, whic ...
around 1777. Her parents were ''aliʻi'' of a lower-ranking line. She became Kamehameha's consort when she was fourteen.
George Vancouver Captain George Vancouver (22 June 1757 – 10 May 1798) was a British Royal Navy officer best known for his 1791–1795 expedition, which explored and charted North America's northwestern Pacific Coast regions, including the coasts of what are ...
states: ''" e of the finest woman we had yet seen on any of the islands"''. To wed the young woman, Kamehameha had to consent to make her children his heirs to the Kingdom, although she had no issue. Before his death, Kamehameha selected Kaʻahumanu to rule along with his son. Kaʻahumanu had also adopted the boy. She had the highest political clout in the islands. A portrait artist remarked of her: ''"This Old Dame is the most proud, unbending Lady in the whole island. As the widow of amehameha she possesses unbound authority and respect, not any of which she is inclined to lay aside on any occasion whatsoever"''. She was one of Hawaii's most influential leaders.


The Royal Election of 1874 and Sugar reciprocity

Sugar became a major export from Hawaii soon after Cook's arrival. The first permanent plantation began in
Kauai Kauai, () anglicized as Kauai ( ), is geologically the second-oldest of the main Hawaiian Islands (after Niʻihau). With an area of 562.3 square miles (1,456.4 km2), it is the fourth-largest of these islands and the 21st largest islan ...
in 1835. William Hooper leased 980 acres of land from
Kamehameha III Kamehameha III (born Kauikeaouli) (March 17, 1814 – December 15, 1854) was the third king of the Kingdom of Hawaii from 1825 to 1854. His full Hawaiian name is Keaweaweula Kīwalaō Kauikeaouli Kaleiopapa and then lengthened to Keaweaweula Kī ...
and began growing
sugarcane Sugarcane or sugar cane is a species of (often hybrid) tall, perennial grass (in the genus '' Saccharum'', tribe Andropogoneae) that is used for sugar production. The plants are 2–6 m (6–20 ft) tall with stout, jointed, fibrous stalk ...
. Within thirty years plantations operated on the four main islands. Sugar completely altered Hawaii's economy. American influence in Hawaiian government began with U.S. plantation owners demanding a say in Kingdom politics. This was driven by missionary religion and sugar economics. Pressure from these plantation owners was felt by the King and chiefs as demands for land tenure. After the brief 1843 takeover by the British, Kamehameha III responded to the demands with the
Great Mahele Great may refer to: Descriptions or measurements * Great, a relative measurement in physical space, see Size * Greatness, being divine, majestic, superior, majestic, or transcendent People * List of people known as "the Great" *Artel Great (born ...
, distributing the lands to all Hawaiians as advocated by missionaries including Gerrit P. Judd. Kamehameha III also tried to modernize Hawaii's legal system by replacing indigenous traditions with Anglo-American
common law In law, common law (also known as judicial precedent, judge-made law, or case law) is the body of law created by judges and similar quasi-judicial tribunals by virtue of being stated in written opinions."The common law is not a brooding omniprese ...
. During the 1850s, the U.S. import tariff on sugar from Hawaii was much higher than the import tariffs Hawaiians were charging the U.S., and
Kamehameha III Kamehameha III (born Kauikeaouli) (March 17, 1814 – December 15, 1854) was the third king of the Kingdom of Hawaii from 1825 to 1854. His full Hawaiian name is Keaweaweula Kīwalaō Kauikeaouli Kaleiopapa and then lengthened to Keaweaweula Kī ...
sought reciprocity. The monarch wished to lower U.S. tariffs and make Hawaiian sugar competitive with other foreign suppliers. In 1854 Kamehameha III proposed a policy of reciprocity between the countries, but the proposal died in the U.S. Senate. U.S. control of Hawaii was considered vital for the defense of its west coast. The military was especially interested in Pu'uloa, Pearl Harbor. The sale of one harbor was proposed by Charles Reed Bishop, a foreigner who had married into the Kamehameha family, had risen to be Hawaiian Minister of Foreign Affairs and owned a country home near Pu'uloa. He showed two U.S. officers around the lochs, although his wife,
Bernice Pauahi Bishop Bernice Pauahi Bishop KGCOK RoK (December 19, 1831 – October 16, 1884), born Bernice Pauahi Pākī, was an '' alii'' (noble) of the Royal Family of the Kingdom of Hawaii and a well known philanthropist. At her death, her estate was the la ...
, privately disapproved of selling Hawaiian lands. As monarch,
William Charles Lunalilo Lunalilo (William Charles Lunalilo; January 31, 1835 – February 3, 1874) was the sixth monarch of the Hawaiian Kingdom, Kingdom of Hawaii from his election on January 8, 1873, until his death a year later. Born to Kekāuluohi and Charles Kana ...
, was content to let Bishop run most business affairs, but the ceding of lands became unpopular with Hawaiians. Many islanders thought that all the islands, rather than just Pearl Harbor, might be lost and opposed any cession. By November 1873, Lunalilo canceled negotiations but his health declined swiftly, and he died on February 3, 1874, at age of 39. Lunalilo left no heirs. The legislature was empowered by the constitution to elect the monarch in these instances. The legislature decided to hold a public referendum and to choose who the public voted for. Queen Emma and
David Kalākaua David (; , "beloved one") (traditional spelling), , ''Dāwūd''; grc-koi, Δαυΐδ, Dauíd; la, Davidus, David; gez , ዳዊት, ''Dawit''; xcl, Դաւիթ, ''Dawitʿ''; cu, Давíдъ, ''Davidŭ''; possibly meaning "beloved one". w ...
both declared their candidacy. Kalākaua won the election. However, Queen Emma and her supporters were not satisfied. While the legislature was formally voting to certify Kalākaua as King pursuant to the public referendum, Queen Emma's supporters descended on the capitol and attacked the legislators. 13 legislators supporting Kalākaua were injured, including one who died after being tossed from a window. The monarchy had no army and the police deserted, thus the Hawaiian government requested the support of American troops to quell the riot. The legislature then duly elected Kalākaua as Lunalilo's successor. The new ruler was pressured by the U.S. government to surrender Pearl Harbor to the Navy. Kalākaua was concerned that this would lead to annexation by the U.S. and to violating the traditions of the Hawaiian people, who believed that the land ('Āina) was fertile, sacred and not for sale. From 1874 through 1875, Kalākaua made a state visit to Washington DC to gather support for a new treaty. Congress agreed to the
Reciprocity Treaty of 1875 The Treaty of reciprocity between the United States of America and the Hawaiian Kingdom ( Hawaiian: ''Kuʻikahi Pānaʻi Like'') was a free trade agreement signed and ratified in 1875 that is generally known as the Reciprocity Treaty of 1875. T ...
for seven years in exchange for Ford Island (Pearl Harbor). After the treaty, sugar production expanded from 12,000 acres to 125,000 acres in 1891. At the end of the seven-year term, the United States showed little interest in renewal.


Rebellion of 1887 and the Bayonet Constitution

On January 20, 1887, the United States began leasing Pearl Harbor. Shortly afterwards, a group of mostly non-Hawaiians calling themselves the ''Hawaiian Patriotic League'' began the Rebellion of 1887. They drafted their own constitution on July 6, 1887. The new constitution was written by
Lorrin Thurston Lorrin Andrews Thurston (July 31, 1858 – May 11, 1931) was an American lawyer, politician, and businessman born and raised in the Kingdom of Hawaii. Thurston played a prominent role in the Overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom that replaced Q ...
, the Hawaiian Minister of the Interior who used the Hawaiian militia to threaten Kalākaua. Kalākaua was forced to dismiss his cabinet ministers and sign a new constitution that greatly lessened his power. It would become known as the "
Bayonet Constitution The 1887 Constitution of the Hawaiian Kingdom was a legal document prepared by anti-monarchists to strip the Hawaiian monarchy of much of its authority, initiating a transfer of power to American, European and native Hawaiian elites. It became k ...
" due to the threat of force.
Grover Cleveland Stephen Grover Cleveland (March 18, 1837June 24, 1908) was an American lawyer and politician who served as the 22nd and 24th president of the United States from 1885 to 1889 and from 1893 to 1897. Cleveland is the only president in American ...
was president at the time, and his secretary of state
Thomas F. Bayard Thomas Francis Bayard (October 29, 1828 – September 28, 1898) was an American lawyer, politician and diplomat from Wilmington, Delaware. A Democrat, he served three terms as United States Senator from Delaware and made three unsuccessful bids ...
sent written instructions to the American minister George W. Merrill that in the event of another revolution in Hawaii, it was a priority to protect American commerce, lives and property. Bayard specified, "the assistance of the officers of our Government vessels, if found necessary, will therefore be promptly afforded to promote the reign of law and respect for orderly government in Hawaii." In July 1889, there was a small scale rebellion, and Minister Merrill landed Marines to protect Americans; the State Department explicitly approved his action. Merrill's replacement, minister John L. Stevens, read those official instructions, and followed them in his controversial actions of 1893. Although Kalākaua's signature alone had no legal power, the new constitution allowed the monarch to appoint cabinet ministers, but stripped him of the power to dismiss them without approval from the Legislature. Eligibility to vote for the House of Nobles was altered, requiring that both candidates and voters own property valued three thousand dollars or more, or have an annual income of six hundred dollars or more. This disenfranchised two thirds of native Hawaiians and other
ethnic groups An ethnic group or an ethnicity is a grouping of people who identify with each other on the basis of shared attributes that distinguish them from other groups. Those attributes can include common sets of traditions, ancestry, language, history, ...
who had previously been eligible to vote. This constitution benefited the foreign plantation owners. With the legislature now responsible for naturalizing aliens, Americans and Europeans could retain their home country citizenship and vote as citizens of the kingdom. Along with voting privileges, Americans could hold office and still retain their American citizenship, something not afforded in any other nation and even allowed Americans to vote without becoming naturalized. Asian immigrants were no longer able to acquire citizenship or vote.


Wilcox Rebellion of 1888

The Wilcox Rebellion of 1888 was a plot to overthrow King David Kalākaua and replace him with his sister in a
coup d'état A coup d'état (; French for 'stroke of state'), also known as a coup or overthrow, is a seizure and removal of a government and its powers. Typically, it is an illegal seizure of power by a political faction, politician, cult, rebel group, m ...
. This was in response to increased political tension between the legislature and the king under the 1887 constitution. Kalākaua's sister, Princess Liliuokalani and wife,
Queen Kapiolani Queen or QUEEN may refer to: Monarchy * Queen regnant, a female monarch of a Kingdom ** List of queens regnant * Queen consort, the wife of a reigning king * Queen dowager, the widow of a king * Queen mother, a queen dowager who is the mother ...
returned from
Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee The Golden Jubilee of Queen Victoria was celebrated on 20 and 21 June 1887 to mark the 50th anniversary of Queen Victoria's accession on 20 June 1837. It was celebrated with a Thanksgiving Service at Westminster Abbey, and a banquet to which ...
immediately after news reached them in
Great Britain Great Britain is an island in the North Atlantic Ocean off the northwest coast of continental Europe. With an area of , it is the largest of the British Isles, the largest European island and the ninth-largest island in the world. It ...
. Kalākaua's distant cousin, a native Hawaiian officer and veteran of the
Italian Italian(s) may refer to: * Anything of, from, or related to the people of Italy over the centuries ** Italians, an ethnic group or simply a citizen of the Italian Republic or Italian Kingdom ** Italian language, a Romance language *** Regional Ita ...
military A military, also known collectively as armed forces, is a heavily armed, highly organized force primarily intended for warfare. It is typically authorized and maintained by a sovereign state, with its members identifiable by their distinct ...
, Robert William Wilcox returned to Hawaii at about the same time as Liliuokalani in October 1887 when the funding for his study program stopped. Wilcox, Charles B. Wilson, Princess Liliuokalani, and Sam Nowlein plotted to overthrow King Kalākaua and replace him with Liliuokalani. 300 Hawaiian conspirators hid in
Iolani Barracks Iolani is a masculine Hawaiian name meaning "royal ''hawk''." It comes from the Hawaiian words ''ʻio'', meaning " Hawaiian hawk," and ''lani'', meaning "royal." It may refer to: * ʻIolani School, a private school located in Hawaii *ʻIolani Pal ...
and an alliance was formed with the Royal Guard, but the plot was accidentally discovered in January 1888, less than 48 hours before the revolt. No one was prosecuted, but Wilcox was
exile Exile is primarily penal expulsion from one's native country, and secondarily expatriation or prolonged absence from one's homeland under either the compulsion of circumstance or the rigors of some high purpose. Usually persons and peoples suf ...
d. On February 11, 1888, Wilcox left Hawaii for San Francisco, intending to return to Italy with his wife. Princess Liliuokalani was offered the throne several times by the Missionary Party who had forced the Bayonet Constitution on her brother, but she believed she would become a powerless figurehead like her brother and rejected the offers. In January 1891, Kalākaua traveled to San Francisco for his health, staying at the Palace Hotel. He died there on January 20. She then ascended the throne. Queen Liliuokalani called her brother's reign "a golden age materially for Hawaii".


Liliuokalani's attempt to re-write Constitution

Liliuokalani assumed the throne in the middle of an economic crisis. The McKinley Act had crippled the Hawaiian sugar industry by removing the duties on sugar imports from other countries into the US, eliminating the previous Hawaiian advantage due to the Reciprocity Treaty of 1875. Many Hawaii businesses and citizens lost revenue; in response Liliuokalani proposed a
lottery A lottery is a form of gambling that involves the drawing of numbers at random for a prize. Some governments outlaw lotteries, while others endorse it to the extent of organizing a national or state lottery. It is common to find some degree of ...
system to raise money for her government. Controversially,
opium Opium (or poppy tears, scientific name: ''Lachryma papaveris'') is dried latex obtained from the seed capsules of the opium poppy '' Papaver somniferum''. Approximately 12 percent of opium is made up of the analgesic alkaloid morphine, which ...
licensing was proposed. Her ministers and closest friends were all opposed to this plan; they unsuccessfully tried to dissuade her from pursuing these initiatives, both of which came to be used against her in the brewing constitutional crisis. Liliuokalani's chief desire was to restore power to the monarch by abrogating the 1887 Bayonet Constitution and promulgating a new one. The 1893 Constitution would have extended suffrage by reducing some property requirements. It would have disenfranchised many non-citizen Europeans and Americans. The Queen toured several islands on horseback, talking to the people about her ideas and receiving overwhelming support, including a lengthy petition in support of a new constitution. However, when the Queen informed her cabinet of her plans, they withheld their support, uncomfortable with what they expected her opponent's likely response to be. Liliuokalani's attempt to promulgate a new constitution on January 14, 1893, was the precipitating event leading to the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii three days later. The conspirators' stated goals were to depose the queen, overthrow the monarchy, and seek Hawaii's annexation to the U.S. The conspirators were five American, one English and one German national.


Overthrow

The overthrow was led by Thurston, who was the grandson of American missionaries and derived his support primarily from the American and European business class and other supporters of the
Reform Party of the Hawaiian Kingdom The Reform Party, also referred to as "the Missionary Party", or the "Down-Town Party", was a political party in the Kingdom of Hawaii. It was founded by descendants of Protestant missionaries that came to Hawaii from New England. Following the Ann ...
. Most of the leaders of the Committee of Safety that deposed the queen were American and European citizens who were Kingdom subjects. They included legislators, government officers and a Supreme Court Justice of the Hawaiian Kingdom. On January 16, the Marshal of the Kingdom, Charles B. Wilson was tipped off by detectives of the planned coup. Wilson requested
warrants Warrant may refer to: * Warrant (law), a form of specific authorization ** Arrest warrant, authorizing the arrest and detention of an individual ** Search warrant, a court order issued that authorizes law enforcement to conduct a search for eviden ...
to arrest the 13 Council members and put the Kingdom under
martial law Martial law is the imposition of direct military control of normal civil functions or suspension of civil law by a government, especially in response to an emergency where civil forces are overwhelmed, or in an occupied territory. Use Martia ...
. Because the members had strong political ties with U.S. Government Minister John L. Stevens, the requests were repeatedly denied by Attorney General Arthur P. Peterson and the Queen's cabinet, fearing if approved, the arrests would escalate the situation. After a failed negotiation with Thurston, Wilson began to collect his troops for the confrontation. Wilson and Captain of the Royal Household Guard Samuel Nowlein rallied a force of 496 troops who were kept at hand to protect the Queen. The overthrow began on January 17, 1893. A policeman was shot and wounded while trying to stop a wagon carrying weapons to the
Honolulu Rifles The Honolulu Rifles were the name of two volunteer military companies of the Hawaiian Kingdom. First company In 1857, the First Hawaiian Cavalry, an artillery and infantry company which was originally established in 1852, was renamed the Honolulu ...
, the paramilitary wing of the Committee of Safety. The Committee feared the shooting would bring government forces to rout the conspirators and stop the coup before it could begin. The Committee of Safety initiated the overthrow by organizing the
Honolulu Rifles The Honolulu Rifles were the name of two volunteer military companies of the Hawaiian Kingdom. First company In 1857, the First Hawaiian Cavalry, an artillery and infantry company which was originally established in 1852, was renamed the Honolulu ...
made of about 1,500 armed local (non-native) men. The Rifles garrisoned Ali'iolani Hale across the street from
ʻIolani Palace The Iolani Palace ( haw, Hale Aliʻi ʻIolani) was the royal residence of the rulers of the Kingdom of Hawaii beginning with Kamehameha III under the Kamehameha Dynasty (1845) and ending with Queen Liliʻuokalani (1893) under the Kalākaua Dyn ...
and waited for the Queen's response. As these events were unfolding, the Committee of Safety expressed concern for the safety and property of American residents in Honolulu.


United States military support

The coup efforts were supported by U.S. Government Minister John L. Stevens. The coup left the queen under house arrest at
Iolani Palace Iolani is a masculine Hawaiian name meaning "royal ''hawk''." It comes from the Hawaiian words ''ʻio'', meaning "Hawaiian hawk," and ''lani'', meaning "royal." It may refer to: *ʻIolani School, a private school located in Hawaii *ʻIolani Palac ...
. The Kingdom briefly became the Republic of Hawaii, before annexation by the United States in 1898. Advised about supposed threats to non-combatant American lives and property by the Committee of Safety, Stevens summoned a company of uniformed U.S. Marines from the USS ''Boston'' and two companies of U.S. sailors to take up positions at the U.S. Legation, Consulate and Arion Hall on the afternoon of January 16, 1893. 162 armed sailors and
Marines Marines, or naval infantry, are typically a military force trained to operate in littoral zones in support of naval operations. Historically, tasks undertaken by marines have included helping maintain discipline and order aboard the ship (refl ...
aboard the USS ''Boston'' in Honolulu Harbor came ashore under orders of neutrality. The sailors and Marines did not enter the Palace grounds or take over any buildings, and never fired a shot, but their presence intimidated royalist defenders. Historian William Russ states, "the injunction to prevent fighting of any kind made it impossible for the monarchy to protect itself."


United States territory


Annexation

In March 1897,
William McKinley William McKinley (January 29, 1843September 14, 1901) was the 25th president of the United States, serving from 1897 until his assassination in 1901. As a politician he led a realignment that made his Republican Party largely dominant in t ...
, a Republican expansionist, succeeded Democrat
Grover Cleveland Stephen Grover Cleveland (March 18, 1837June 24, 1908) was an American lawyer and politician who served as the 22nd and 24th president of the United States from 1885 to 1889 and from 1893 to 1897. Cleveland is the only president in American ...
as U.S. President. He prepared a treaty of
annexation Annexation (Latin ''ad'', to, and ''nexus'', joining), in international law, is the forcible acquisition of one state's territory by another state, usually following military occupation of the territory. It is generally held to be an illegal act ...
but it lacked the needed 2/3 majority in the
Senate A senate is a deliberative assembly, often the upper house or chamber of a bicameral legislature. The name comes from the ancient Roman Senate (Latin: ''Senatus''), so-called as an assembly of the senior (Latin: ''senex'' meaning "the el ...
given Democratic opposition. A
joint resolution In the United States Congress, a joint resolution is a legislative measure that requires passage by the Senate and the House of Representatives and is presented to the President for their approval or disapproval. Generally, there is no legal diff ...
, written by Democratic Congressman Francis G. Newlands to annex Hawaii passed both the House and Senate; it needed only majority support. The U.S. Supreme Court gave tacit recognition to the legitimacy of this annexation in De Lima v. Bidwell, 182 U.S. 1, 196 (1901). The
Spanish–American War , partof = the Philippine Revolution, the decolonization of the Americas, and the Cuban War of Independence , image = Collage infobox for Spanish-American War.jpg , image_size = 300px , caption = (clock ...
had broken out and many leaders wanted control of Pearl Harbor to help the United States to become a Pacific power and protect the West Coast. Kalākaua was concerned over a possible United States seizure of the Hawaiian Islands and, in Kalākaua's 1881 world tour held a secret meeting with the Japanese Emperor to bring Hawaii under the protective aegis. He proposed to unite the two nations with an arranged marriage between his 5-year-old niece Princess Kaʻiulani and 13-year-old Prince Yamashina Sadamaro. His proposal was rejected by Japan because Japan was concerned that accepting this offer will worsen the diplomatic conflict between Japan and the United States. In 1897 Japan sent warships to Hawaii to oppose annexation. The possibility of invasion and annexation by Japan made the decision even more urgent, especially since the islands' fourth population was Japanese who were largely sympathetic to their country's goal in doing so. McKinley signed the
Newlands Resolution The Newlands Resolution was a joint resolution passed on July 7, 1898, by the United States Congress to annex the independent Republic of Hawaii. In 1900, Congress created the Territory of Hawaii. The resolution was drafted by Representative Fr ...
annexing Hawaii on July 7, 1898, creating the
Territory of Hawaii The Territory of Hawaii or Hawaii Territory ( Hawaiian: ''Panalāʻau o Hawaiʻi'') was an organized incorporated territory of the United States that existed from April 30, 1900, until August 21, 1959, when most of its territory, excluding ...
. On 22 February 1900 the Hawaiian Organic Act established a territorial government. Annexation opponents held that this was illegal, claiming the Queen was the only legitimate ruler. McKinley appointed
Sanford B. Dole Sanford Ballard Dole (April 23, 1844 – June 9, 1926) was a lawyer and jurist from the Hawaiian Islands. He lived through the periods when Hawaii was a kingdom, protectorate, republic, and territory. A descendant of the American missionar ...
as territorial governor. The territorial legislature convened for the first time on February 20, 1901. Hawaiians formed the Hawaiian Independent Party, under the leadership of Robert Wilcox, Hawaii's first congressional delegate.


Plantations

Sugarcane Sugarcane or sugar cane is a species of (often hybrid) tall, perennial grass (in the genus '' Saccharum'', tribe Andropogoneae) that is used for sugar production. The plants are 2–6 m (6–20 ft) tall with stout, jointed, fibrous stalk ...
plantations in Hawaii expanded during the territorial period. Some companies diversified and came to dominate related industries including transportation, banking and real estate. Economic and political power was concentrated in what were known as the " Big Five". A 1909 strike by Japanese farm workers led to a brief experiment importing Russian laborers, mostly from Siberia. False promises of land grants by a recruiter named A.W. Perelstrous resulted in strikes among the Russian workers as well. Experiencing many hardships including a measles outbreak, lack of ability to communicate with Hawaiians, and culture clashes, most Russians ended up moving to California, New York, or back to Russia (mostly after the 1917
Russian Revolution The Russian Revolution was a period of political and social revolution that took place in the former Russian Empire which began during the First World War. This period saw Russia abolish its monarchy and adopt a socialist form of government ...
).


World War II


Attack on Pearl Harbor

Pearl Harbor Pearl Harbor is an American lagoon harbor on the island of Oahu, Hawaii, west of Honolulu. It was often visited by the Naval fleet of the United States, before it was acquired from the Hawaiian Kingdom by the U.S. with the signing of the ...
was attacked on December 7, 1941, by the
Imperial Japanese Navy The Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN; Kyūjitai: Shinjitai: ' 'Navy of the Greater Japanese Empire', or ''Nippon Kaigun'', 'Japanese Navy') was the navy of the Empire of Japan from 1868 to 1945, when it was dissolved following Japan's surrender ...
, killing almost 2,500 people and sinking the main American
battleship A battleship is a large armour, armored warship with a main artillery battery, battery consisting of large caliber guns. It dominated naval warfare in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The term ''battleship'' came into use in the late 1 ...
fleet. Fortuitously for the Americans, the four Pacific
aircraft carrier An aircraft carrier is a warship that serves as a seagoing airbase, equipped with a full-length flight deck and facilities for carrying, arming, deploying, and recovering aircraft. Typically, it is the capital ship of a fleet, as it allows a ...
s were not in port and escaped damage. Hawaii was put under martial law until 1945. Unlike the
West Coast of the United States The West Coast of the United States, also known as the Pacific Coast, Pacific states, and the western seaboard, is the coastline along which the Western United States meets the North Pacific Ocean. The term typically refers to the contiguous U.S ...
in which 100,000 ethnic Japanese citizens were interned, the Japanese American population in Hawaii completely avoided such similar fate, though hundreds of pro-Japan leaders were arrested. Pearl Harbor was the U.S.' main forward base for the Pacific War. The Japanese tried to invade in summer 1942 but were defeated at the
Battle of Midway The Battle of Midway was a major naval battle in the Pacific Theater of World War II that took place on 4–7 June 1942, six months after Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor and one month after the Battle of the Coral Sea. The U.S. Navy under ...
. Hundreds of thousands of American soldiers, sailors, Marines, and airmen passed through on their way to the fighting. Many Hawaii residents served in the 442nd Regimental Combat Team, a
U.S. Army The United States Army (USA) is the land service branch of the United States Armed Forces. It is one of the eight U.S. uniformed services, and is designated as the Army of the United States in the U.S. Constitution.Article II, section 2, cl ...
infantry Infantry is a military specialization which engages in ground combat on foot. Infantry generally consists of light infantry, mountain infantry, motorized infantry & mechanized infantry, airborne infantry, air assault infantry, and mar ...
 
regiment A regiment is a military unit. Its role and size varies markedly, depending on the country, service and/or a specialisation. In Medieval Europe, the term "regiment" denoted any large body of front-line soldiers, recruited or conscript ...
. The regiment was composed almost entirely of  American soldiers of Japanese ancestry. The regiment fought primarily in
Italy Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic, ) or the Republic of Italy, is a country in Southern Europe. It is located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, and its territory largely coincides with the homonymous geographical ...
, 
southern France Southern France, also known as the South of France or colloquially in French as , is a defined geographical area consisting of the regions of France that border the Atlantic Ocean south of the Marais Poitevin,Louis Papy, ''Le midi atlantique'', A ...
and 
Germany Germany,, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It is the second most populous country in Europe after Russia, and the most populous member state of the European Union. Germany is situated betwee ...
. The 442nd Regiment was the most decorated unit for its size and length of service in American history. Its 4,000 members had to be replaced nearly 2.5 times due to casualties. In total, about 14,000 Hawaiians served, earning 9,486 
Purple Heart The Purple Heart (PH) is a United States military decoration awarded in the name of the President to those wounded or killed while serving, on or after 5 April 1917, with the U.S. military. With its forerunner, the Badge of Military Merit, ...
s. The unit was awarded eight  Presidential Unit Citations (five in one month). Twenty-one of its members, including Hawaii U.S. Senator
Daniel Inouye Daniel Ken Inouye ( ; September 7, 1924 – December 17, 2012) was an American lawyer and politician who served as a United States senator from Hawaii from 1963 until his death in 2012. Beginning in 1959, he was the first U.S. representative ...
, were awarded  Medals of Honor. Its motto was "Go for Broke".


Democratic Party

In 1954 a series of non-violent industry-wide strikes,
protests A protest (also called a demonstration, remonstration or remonstrance) is a public expression of objection, disapproval or dissent towards an idea or action, typically a political one. Protests can be thought of as acts of coopera ...
and other
civil disobedience Civil disobedience is the active, professed refusal of a citizen to obey certain laws, demands, orders or commands of a government (or any other authority). By some definitions, civil disobedience has to be nonviolent to be called "civil". H ...
transpired. In the territorial elections of 1954 the reign of the
Hawaii Republican Party The Hawaii Republican Party ( haw, ʻAoʻao Lepupalika o Hawaiʻi) is the affiliate of the Republican Party (GOP) in Hawaii, headquartered in Honolulu. The party was initially strong during Hawaii's territorial days, but following statehood the ...
in the legislature came to an abrupt end, replaced by the
Democratic Party of Hawaii The Democratic Party of Hawaii ( haw, ʻAoʻao Demokalaka o Hawaiʻi) is the affiliate of the Democratic Party in the state of Hawaii. The party is a centralized organization established to promote the party platform as drafted in convention ...
. Democrats lobbied for statehood and held the governorship from 1962 to 2002. The events also unionized the labor force, hastening the plantations' decline.


Statehood

President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed the Hawaii Admission Act on March 18, 1959, which allowed for Hawaiian statehood. After a popular referendum in which over 93% voted in favor of statehood, Hawaii was admitted as the 50th state on August 21, 1959.


Annexation legacy

For all of recorded history prior to annexation, including all census counts made during the Kingdom of Hawaii, the number of Native Hawaiians in Hawaii declined. The lowest recorded number of Native Hawaiians in Hawaii was 37,656 in the first census conducted by the United States in 1900 after the annexation of Hawaii to the United States in 1898. Since Hawaii has joined the United States the Native Hawaiian population in Hawaii has increased with every census to 289,970 in 2010. For many
Native Hawaiians Native Hawaiians (also known as Indigenous Hawaiians, Kānaka Maoli, Aboriginal Hawaiians, First Hawaiians, or simply Hawaiians) ( haw, kānaka, , , and ), are the indigenous ethnic group of Polynesian people of the Hawaiian Islands. Hawa ...
, the manner in which Hawaii became a U.S. territory was illegal. However, many Hawaiians are also proud to be Hawaiians and Americans and believe the manner in which Hawaii became a U.S. State was legal. Hawaii Territory governors and judges were direct political appointees of the U.S. President. Native Hawaiians created the Home Rule Party to seek greater self-government. The 1960s
Hawaiian Renaissance The Hawaiian Renaissance (also called the Hawaiian Cultural Renaissance) was the Hawaiian resurgence of a distinct cultural identity that draws upon traditional kānaka maoli culture, with a significant divergence from the tourism-based culture ...
led to renewed interest in the
Hawaiian language Hawaiian (', ) is a Polynesian language of the Austronesian language family that takes its name from Hawaii, the largest island in the tropical North Pacific archipelago where it developed. Hawaiian, along with English, is an official language ...
, culture and identity. With the support of Hawaii Senators
Daniel Inouye Daniel Ken Inouye ( ; September 7, 1924 – December 17, 2012) was an American lawyer and politician who served as a United States senator from Hawaii from 1963 until his death in 2012. Beginning in 1959, he was the first U.S. representative ...
and
Daniel Akaka Daniel Kahikina Akaka (; September 11, 1924 – April 6, 2018) was an American educator and politician who served as a United States Senate, United States Senator from Hawaii from 1990 to 2013. A member of the Democratic Party (United States), De ...
, Congress passed a joint resolution called the "
Apology Resolution United States Public Law 103-150, informally known as the Apology Resolution, is a Joint Resolution of the U.S. Congress adopted in 1993 that "acknowledges that the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii occurred with the active participation of age ...
" ( US Public Law 103-150). It was signed by President
Bill Clinton William Jefferson Clinton (né Blythe III; born August 19, 1946) is an American politician who served as the 42nd president of the United States from 1993 to 2001. He previously served as governor of Arkansas from 1979 to 1981 and again ...
on November 23, 1993. This resolution apologized "to Native Hawaiians on behalf of the people of the United States for the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii on January 17, 1893... and the deprivation of the rights of Native Hawaiians to self-determination." The implications of this resolution have been extensively debated. The resolution's description of the history of Hawaii is also selective and inflammatory and has been thoroughly criticized, ignoring entirely, for example, the fact that the overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom was led by Hawaiian citizens on the Committee of Safety. The resolution also fails to explain why it would only apply to Native Hawaiians as defined as people descended from persons living in Hawaii prior to Captain Cook's arrival in 1778, as opposed to all subjects of the Kingdom, since in theory all subjects would have been the victims of the overthrow because citizenship in the Kingdom was not limited to persons descended from people living in Hawaii prior to 1778. In 2000, Akaka proposed what was called the Akaka Bill to extend federal recognition to those of
Native Hawaiian Native Hawaiians (also known as Indigenous Hawaiians, Kānaka Maoli, Aboriginal Hawaiians, First Hawaiians, or simply Hawaiians) ( haw, kānaka, , , and ), are the indigenous ethnic group of Polynesian people of the Hawaiian Islands. Hawa ...
ancestry as a sovereign group similar to Native American tribes. The bill did not pass before his retirement.


See also

* Women's suffrage in Hawaii * Legal status of Hawaii *
List of conflicts in Hawaii This is a list of wars, bloodless wars, battles, conspiracies, rebellions, revolutions, nonviolent revolutions, massacres, and terrorist attacks in the Hawaiian Islands. Ancient Warfare There were many ancient Hawaiian battles and wars throug ...
*
List of Missionaries to Hawaii This is a list of missionaries to Hawaii. Before European exploration, the Hawaiian religion was brought from Tahiti by Paʻao according to oral tradition. Notable missionaries with written records below are generally Christian. Protestant Ame ...
*
National Register of Historic Places listings in Hawaii This is a list of properties and historic districts in Hawaii listed on the National Register of Historic Places. More than 340 listings appear on all but one of Hawaii's main islands ( Niihau being the exception) and the Northwestern Islands ...
* Timeline of Honolulu


References


Bibliography

* Beechert, Edward D. ''Working in Hawaii: A labor history'' (University of Hawaii Press, 1985). * Craig, Robert D. ''Historical dictionary of Honolulu and Hawaiʻi'' (Scarecrow Press, 1998). * * Fuchs, Lawrence H. ''Hawaii Pono: 'Hawaii the Excellent': An Ethnic and Political History.'' (1961). * Haley, James L. ''Captive Paradise: A History of Hawaii'' (St. Martin's Press, 2014). * Kuykendall, Ralph Simpson, and Arthur Grove Day. ''Hawaii: a history, from Polynesian kingdom to American state'' (Prentice Hall, 1961) als
online 1926 edition
* La Croix, Sumner. '' Hawai’i: Eight Hundred Years of Political and Economic Change'' (U of Chicago Press, 2019) 309 pp.
EH.net online review by Lee J. Alston
* La Croix, Sumner. "Economic history of Hawai‘i." ''Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Economics and Finance'' (2021) * Tabrah, Ruth M. ''Hawaii: a history'' (WW Norton & Company, 1984). * Wyndette, Olive. ''Islands of Destiny: A History of Hawaii'' (1968).


Specialty studies

* Aquino, Belinda
''The Filipino Century in Hawaii: Out of the Crucible''
(2006). * Brown, DeSoto and Anne Ellett. ''Hawaii goes to war: life in Hawaii from Pearl Harbor to peace'' (1989). * Chapin, Helen. ''Shaping history: The role of newspapers in Hawai'i'' (University of Hawaii Press, 1996). * Cochran, Thomas C. and Ray Ginger. "The American-Hawaiian Steamship Company, 1899–1919," ''Business History Review'' (1954). 28#4, pp. 342–365. * Forbes, David W. ''Encounters with paradise: views of Hawaii and its people, 1778–1941'' (Honolulu Academy of Arts, 1992). * Greenlee, John Wyatt. "Eight Islands on Four Maps: The Cartographic Renegotiation of Hawai'i, 1876-1959." ''Cartographica'' 50, 3 (2015), 119–140
online
* MacLennan, Carol A. ''Sovereign Sugar, Industry and Environment in Hawaii'' (2014). * Mak, James. "Creating 'Paradise of the Pacific': How Tourism Began in Hawaii." (No. 2015-1. 2015
online
82pp * Melendy, Howard Brett, and Rhoda E.A. Hackler. ''Hawaii, America's Sugar Territory, 1898–1959'' (
Lewiston, New York Lewiston is a town in Niagara County, New York, United States. The population was 15,944 at the 2020 census. The town and its contained village are named after Morgan Lewis, a governor of New York. The Town of Lewiston is on the western bord ...
:
Edwin Mellen Press The Edwin Mellen Press or Mellen Press is an international independent company and academic publishing house with editorial offices in Lewiston, New York, and Lampeter, Wales. It was founded, in 1972, by the religious studies scholar Profess ...
, 1999). * Melendy, Howard Brett. ''Walter Francis Dillingham, 1875–1963: Hawaiian Entrepreneur and Statesman'' (
Lewiston, New York Lewiston is a town in Niagara County, New York, United States. The population was 15,944 at the 2020 census. The town and its contained village are named after Morgan Lewis, a governor of New York. The Town of Lewiston is on the western bord ...
:
Edwin Mellen Press The Edwin Mellen Press or Mellen Press is an international independent company and academic publishing house with editorial offices in Lewiston, New York, and Lampeter, Wales. It was founded, in 1972, by the religious studies scholar Profess ...
, 1996). * Morgan, William Michael. "The Anti-Japanese Origins of the Hawaiian Annexation Treaty Of 1897" ''Diplomatic History''. (1982) 6#1 pp 23-44. ** Morgan, William Michael. ''Pacific Gibraltar: U.S.-Japanese Rivalry Over the Annexation of Hawaii, 1885-1898'' (Naval Institute Press, 2011). Se
online review by Kenneth R. Conklin, PhD
* * Rohrer, Judy. ''Haoles in Hawai'i'' (2010), 124ff.; scholarly survey * Russ, William Adam. ''The Hawaiian Revolution (1893-94)'' (1992) * Russ, William Adam. ''The Hawaiian Republic (1894–98) and its struggle to win annexation'' (Susquehanna U Press, 1992). * Schmitt, Robert C. ''Historical Statistics of Hawaii'' (University Press of Hawaii, 1977). * Schmitt, Robert C. "Religious statistics of Hawaii, 1825-1972." '' Hawaiian Journal of History'' (1973), Vol. 7, pp 41-47. * Schmitt, Robert C. ''Demographic Statistics of Hawaii." Demographic Statistics of Hawaii'' (University of Hawaii Press, 2021). * Siler, Julia Flynn. ''Lost Kingdom: Hawaii's Last Queen, the Sugar Kings and America's First Imperial Adventure'' (2012). * Sumida, Stephen H. ''And the View from the Shore: Literary Traditions of Hawai'i'' (University of Washington Press, 2015). * Teodoro, Luis V., ed. ''Out of this struggle: The Filipinos in Hawaii'' (U. University of Hawaii Press, 2019). * Tregaskis, Richard. ''The warrior king: Hawaii's Kamehameha the Great'' (1973). * * Wilson, Rob. "Exporting Christian Transcendentalism, Importing Hawaiian Sugar: The Trans-Americanization of Hawai'i." ''American Literature'' 72#.3 (2000): 521–552


External links


Audio of Dwight D. Eisenhower Hawaii Statehood Proclamation Speech






by Chris Cook in ''The Islander Magazine''

in ''The Islander Magazine''
Today in Hawai`i History
* * * {{Authority control > Līloa was the first born son of Kiha nui lulu moku, one of the ''noho aliʻi'' (ruling elite). He descended from Hāna laʻa nui. Līloa's mother, Waioloa, his grandmother, Neʻula and great grandmother, Laʻa kapu were of the ʻEwa Beach, Hawaii, ʻEwa aliʻi lines of
Oahu Oahu () ( Hawaiian: ''Oʻahu'' ()), also known as "The Gathering Place", is the third-largest of the Hawaiian Islands. It is home to roughly one million people—over two-thirds of the population of the U.S. state of Hawaii. The island of O ...
. Liloa's father ruled Hawaii as ''aliʻi nui'' and upon his death elevated Līloa. Kiha had had four other sons, Kaunuamoa, Makaoku, Kepailiula and Hoolana, whose descendants are the Kaiakea family of
Molokai Molokai , or Molokai (), is the fifth most populated of the eight major islands that make up the Hawaiian Islands archipelago in the middle of the Pacific Ocean. It is 38 by 10 miles (61 by 16 km) at its greatest length and width with a us ...
, distant relatives of Abraham Fornander's daughter. In his book,
David Malo David Malo or Davida Malo (1795–1853) was a chiefly counselor, a Hawaiian intellectual, educator, politician and minister. He is remembered by subsequent generations of Hawaiian people and scholars primarily as a Native Hawaiian historian of the ...
described how Liloa originated the practice of ''moe āikane'', the sexual relationship between males. The relationships had no social stigma and were accepted practice beginning with the alii and then copied by the other classes. Warriors engaged in the practice. The relationships cannot be defined as
bisexuality Bisexuality is a romantic or sexual attraction or behavior toward both males and females, or to more than one gender. It may also be defined to include romantic or sexual attraction to people regardless of their sex or gender identity, ...
. In many cases, the men involved felt it an honor and responsibility to honor their ''hana lawelawe''.


Hākau

Just before his death, Liloa bestowed on Hākau the succession as Chief, telling Umi that he was to serve as his "man" (Prime Minister) and that both were to respect the other and should either have issue with the other it would be for them to decide. At first a decent king, Hākau soon became brutal. To avoid his brother's anger, 'Umi exiled himself to another district. Hākau refused to help Nunu and Ka-hohe, his father's two favorite, ailing Kahuna who had requested food. This was considered highly insulting. The two were of the priestly class of the god
Lono In Hawaiian religion, the god Lono is associated with fertility, agriculture, rainfall, music and peace. In one of the many Hawaiian stories of Lono, he is a fertility and music god who descended to Earth on a rainbow to marry Laka. In agricultu ...
. They resented their treatment and plotted to see the kingdom in someone else's hand. Hākau did not believe the priests to have any power and disrespected them as 'Umi was the spiritual authority This was a period in when no King could defy a Kahuna. Many had a royal bloodline, land and could leave their temples as warriors when needed, but could never relinquish their spiritual responsibilities. Through a messenger of Kaoleioku, of Waipunalei, the high-priest of the temple of Manini, at Koholalele the two priests contacted Umi's court. The two priests traveled to Waipunalei where they supported Umi's revolt. When Hākau received news that his brother was preparing to war against him, he sent his main forces out to immediately prepare by seeking feathers to adorn their war regalia. After the warriors had left and Hākau was undefended, Umi's warriors came forward with a deception that they were there with bundles of offerings for the king. When the bundles were dropped to the ground they were filled with rocks they used to stone Hākau to death.


ʻUmi-a-Līloa

ʻUmi-a-Līloa was a ruling ''aliʻi ai moku'' (district high chief of Hawai'i). He became chief after the death of his half brother Hākau and was considered a just ruler, religious and the first to unite almost all of the Big Island. The legend of ʻUmi-a-Līloa is one of the most popular hero sagas in Hawaiian history. ʻUmi's wife was
Princess Princess is a regal rank and the feminine equivalent of prince (from Latin '' princeps'', meaning principal citizen). Most often, the term has been used for the consort of a prince, or for the daughter of a king or prince. Princess as a subs ...
Piʻikea Piʻikea (Hawaiian: ''piʻi'' = "to ascend", ''ke'' = "the", ''ea'' = "life"; "the life ascends") was a High Chiefess. She was a daughter of Piʻilani and Queen La’ieloheloheikawai and sister of Lono-a-Piilani and Kiha-a-Piilani. Piʻilani built ...
, daughter of Piʻilani. They had one son,
Kumalae Kumalae was a Hawaiian High Chief, ''Aliʻi Nui'' (ruler) of Hilo. He is also known as Kumalae-nui-a-ʻUmi ("Kumalae the Great, son of ʻUmi"). Family He was born about 1648. His father was ʻUmi-a-Liloa, ''Aliʻi Aimoku'' of Hawaiʻi. His mo ...
and one daughter, Aihākōkō. Liloa told Akahi that, if she were to have a male child, she should present the boy to him along with royal tokens he gave her as gifts, to prove her boy was the son of the king. Akahi hid the tokens from her husband and later gave birth to a son. At the age of 15 or 16, his stepfather was punishing the boy when his mother intervened and told the man not to touch him because the boy was his lord and chief. She uncovered the tokens to present to her husband to prove the high treason he would have committed. Akahi gave her son the royal malo and
lei niho palaoa A ''lei niho palaoa'' is a Hawaiian neck ornament traditionally worn by ''aliʻi'' (chiefs) of both sexes. The 19th century examples are most commonly made of a whale tooth carved into a hook-shape suspended by plaited human hair. The symbolism ...
given to her by 'Umi's biological father. Only high chiefs wore these items. She sent 'Umi to Waipiʻo Valley to present himself to the king as his son. Liloa's palace was guarded and attended by several
Kahuna ''Kahuna'' is a Hawaiian language, Hawaiian word that refers to an expert in any field. Historically, it has been used to refer to doctors, surgeons and dentists, as well as priests, ministers, and sorcerers. Background A ''kahuna'' may be ver ...
. The entire enclosure was sacred. Entering without permission carried the death penalty. Umi entered the enclosure with attendants afraid to stop someone wearing the royal insignia and walked straight to Liloa's sleeping quarters, waking him there. When Liloa asked who he was, he said "It is I, 'Umi your son". He then placed the tokens at his father's feet and Liloa proclaimed him to be his son. After learning of 'Umi, Hākau became upset. Liloa assured his first born that he would be king after his death and his brother would serve him. 'Umi was brought to court on an equal footing with Hākau. Living within Liloa's court alongside his brother, Umi found great favor from his father, increasing Hākau's dislike. In exile, 'Umi took wives and began building forces and followers. Chiefs began to believe him to be of the highest chiefly nature from signs they observed. He gave food to people and became known for caring for all. After Hākau's death the other aliʻi of the island claimed their districts for themselves. 'Umi took the advice of the two priests by marrying many woman of high noble rank, including his half sister Kapukini and the daughter of the ruler of Hilo, where he had been given sanctuary during Hākau's reign. Eventually Umi conquered the entire island. After unifying the island of Hawaii, 'Umi was faithful to those who had supported him, and allowed his three most faithful companions, and the two Kahuna who had aided him, to help him govern.


Aikāne

'' Aikāne'' relationships or (mostly male) homosexual or bisexual activity in the pre-colonial era was an accepted tradition. These relationships were accepted as part of
ancient Hawaii Ancient Hawaii is the period of Hawaiian history preceding the unification in 1810 of the Kingdom of Hawaii by Kamehameha the Great. Traditionally, researchers estimated the first settlement of the Hawaiian islands as having occurred sporadicall ...
an culture. Such sexual relationships may begin in the teens and continue thereafter, even though they have heterosexual partners. The Hawaiian ''aikāne'' relationship was a part of Hawaiian noble life, including that of Kamehameha I. Some myths refer to women's desires and therefore some women may have been involved in ''aikāne'' relationships as well. Lieutenant James King stated that "all the chiefs had them" and recounts a tale that
James Cook James Cook (7 November 1728 Old Style date: 27 October – 14 February 1779) was a British explorer, navigator, cartographer, and captain in the British Royal Navy, famous for his three voyages between 1768 and 1779 in the Pacific Ocean and ...
was actually asked by one chief to leave Lt. King behind, considering such offer a great honor. Members of Cook's crew related tales of the tradition with great disdain. American adventurer and sailor John Ledyard commented in detail about the tradition.


Land division system

Land was divided up in strict adherence to the wishes of the ''Ali‘i Nui''. The traditional system of land has four hierarchical levels: *''mokupuni'' (island) *''moku'' (subdivisions of an island) *''ahupuaʻa (''subdivision of ''moku'') *''ʻili'' (two or three per ahupuaʻa, but
Kahoolawe Kahoolawe (Hawaiian: ), anglicized as Kahoolawe (), is the smallest of the eight main volcanic islands in the Hawaiian Islands. Kahoolawe is located about southwest of Maui and also southeast of Lānaʻi, and it is long by wide, with a total l ...
for example had eight) Some oral history relates that ʻUmi a Līloa created the ahupuaʻa system. The system exploited the fact that communities were already organized along stream systems. The community governance system of Kānāwai is attributed specifically to shared water usage. The Hawaiian agricultural system contained two major classes; irrigated and rain-fed (dryland) systems. Irrigated systems mainly supported
taro Taro () (''Colocasia esculenta)'' is a root vegetable. It is the most widely cultivated species of several plants in the family Araceae that are used as vegetables for their corms, leaves, and petioles. Taro corms are a food staple in Afri ...
(''kalo'') cultivation. Rain-fed systems were known as the ''mala.'' There they cultivated uala (
sweet potato The sweet potato or sweetpotato ('' Ipomoea batatas'') is a dicotyledonous plant that belongs to the bindweed or morning glory family, Convolvulaceae. Its large, starchy, sweet-tasting tuberous roots are used as a root vegetable. The young ...
es), yams, and dryland taro along with coconuts (''niu''),
breadfruit Breadfruit (''Artocarpus altilis'') is a species of flowering tree in the mulberry and jackfruit family ( Moraceae) believed to be a domesticated descendant of '' Artocarpus camansi'' originating in New Guinea, the Maluku Islands, and the Phil ...
(''ʻulu''), bananas (''maiʻa'') and
sugarcane Sugarcane or sugar cane is a species of (often hybrid) tall, perennial grass (in the genus '' Saccharum'', tribe Andropogoneae) that is used for sugar production. The plants are 2–6 m (6–20 ft) tall with stout, jointed, fibrous stalk ...
(''ko''). The kukui tree (''
Aleurites moluccanus ''Aleurites moluccanus'', the candlenut, is a flowering tree in the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae, also known as candleberry, Indian walnut, ''kemiri'', varnish tree, ''nuez de la India'', ''buah keras'', ''godou'', kukui nut tree, and ''rata k ...
'') was sometimes used as a shade to protect the ''mala'' from the sun. Each crop was carefully placed in an area most suitable to its needs. Hawaiians domesticated dogs, chickens and pigs. They also grew personal gardens at home. Water was a very important part of Hawaiian life; it was used for fishing, bathing, drinking, and gardening, and for
aquaculture Aquaculture (less commonly spelled aquiculture), also known as aquafarming, is the controlled cultivation ("farming") of aquatic organisms such as fish, crustaceans, mollusks, algae and other organisms of value such as aquatic plants (e.g. lot ...
systems in the rivers and at the shore's edge. Ahupuaʻa most frequently consisted of a section of an island that went from the top of the local mountain to the shore, often following the boundary of a stream. Each ahupuaʻa included a lowland ''mala'' and upland forested region.Losch, Tracie, and Momi Kamahele, "Hawaii: Center of the Pacific" (Pearl City: University of Hawaii Leeward Community College, 2008) Ahupuaʻa varied in size depending on the economic means of the location and political divisions of the area. "As the native Hawaiians used the resources within their ahupuaʻa, they practiced ''aloha'' (respect), ''laulima'' (cooperation) and ''malama'' (stewardship) which resulted in a desirable ''pono'' (balance)". The Hawaiians believed that the land, the sea, the clouds and all of nature had a certain interconnectedness which is why they used all of the resources around them to reach the desired balance in life. Sustainability was maintained by the
konohiki A ''konohiki'' is a headman of a land division or ahupuaʻa of the Kingdom of Hawaii who administered the land ruled by an aliʻi chief. Background The lands of the ruling chiefs of Hawaii were divided into radial divisions of land when possible. ...
and kahuna: priests, who restricted the fishing of certain species during specific seasons. They also regulated the gathering of plants. The term "ahupuaʻa" is derived from the Hawaiian words ''ahu'' "heap, cairn" and ''puaʻa'' " pig". The boundary markers for ahupuaʻa were traditionally heaps of stones used to hold offers to the island chief, which was often a pig. Each ahupuaʻa was divided into smaller sections called ''ʻili'' and the ''ʻili'' were divided into ''kuleana''. These were individual plots of land that were cultivated by commoners who paid labor taxes to the land overseer each week. These taxes went to support the chief. Two possible reasons for this subdivision have been offered: *travel: in many areas of Hawaiʻi, it is easier to travel up- and downstream than from stream valley to stream valley. *economy: having all climate and economic exploitation zones in each land division ensured that each could be self-sufficient for a large portion of its needs.


Governance

The Kingdom was administered by an ali'i chief. Divisions were under the control of other smaller chiefs and managed by a steward. The headman of a land division or ahupua`a is a ''konohiki''. ''Mokus'' were ruled by an ''aliʻi ʻaimoku''. ''Ahupua'as were'' run by a headman or chief called a
Konohiki A ''konohiki'' is a headman of a land division or ahupuaʻa of the Kingdom of Hawaii who administered the land ruled by an aliʻi chief. Background The lands of the ruling chiefs of Hawaii were divided into radial divisions of land when possible. ...
.


Konohiki

In Keelikolani vs Robinson, ''kononiki'' is defined as a
Land Agent Land agent may be used in at least three different contexts. Traditionally, a land agent was a managerial employee who conducted the business affairs of a large landed estate for a member of the landed gentry, supervising the farming of the prop ...
. In Territory vs Bishop Trust Co. LTD., when the agent was appointed by a chief, they were referred to as ''konohiki''. The term could also be a designated area of land owned privately as compared to being owned by the government. A chief of lands retained life tenure on the land even after being discharged from the position, but a head man overseeing the same land had no such protection. Often '' ali'i'' and ''konohiki'' are treated synonymously. However, while most ''konohiki'' were ''ali'i'' nobility, not all ''ali'i'' were ''konohiki''. The Hawaiian dictionary defines ''konohiki'' as a headman of a land division, but also to describe fishing rights. ''Kono'' means to entice or prompt. ''Hiki'' refers to something that can be done. The ''konohiki'' was a relative of the ''ali'i'' and oversaw the property, managing
water rights Water right in water law refers to the right of a user to use water from a water source, e.g., a river, stream, pond or source of groundwater. In areas with plentiful water and few users, such systems are generally not complicated or contentiou ...
, land distribution,
agricultural Agriculture or farming is the practice of cultivating plants and livestock. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that enabled peopl ...
use and any maintenance. The ''konohiki'' also ensured that the right amounts of gifts and tribute were properly made at the right times. As
capitalism Capitalism is an economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and their operation for profit. Central characteristics of capitalism include capital accumulation, competitive markets, price system, private ...
was incorporated into the kingdom, the konohiki became tax collectors, landlords and fishery wardens.


Breaking of the Kapu

In a triumph for women's equality, Hawaiians overthrew the kapu religious theocracy in 1819 by themselves, before the arrival of American missionaries and without the support of western powers like Great Britain, France, or the United States. On October 4, 1819, Kamehameha II, who became king after the death of his father Kamehameha I (the founder of the Hawaiian Kingdom), ate dinner with Queen Ka‘ahumanu, Kamehameha I’s favored wife, and Queen Keopuolani, the mother of Kamehameha II. The prohibition on men and women eating together, the ‘ai kapu, was one of the most ancient kapus or prohibitions: the penalty for its violation was death. Queen Ka‘ahumanu, however, despised the prohibition as it prevented her from entering certain religious temples where men made political decisions over meals. Queen Keopuolani also violated the prohibition even before the public breaking. Violating the ‘ai kapu at a public dinner, as Kamehameha II did, was a clear signal that the kapu system was abolished given Kamehameha II’s status as King, Kahamumanu’s status as Queen Regent, and Keopuolani’s status as Queen. The guests at the dinner cried out “‘ai noa! ” (free eating). Afterwards, Kamehameha II – with the support of his high priest Hewahewa – ordered the destruction of the ancient heiau temples. After the breaking of the kapu, a brief civil war then broke out, with Kamehameha I’s nephew, Kekuaokalani, opposing. Kekuaokalani’s forces were defeated by Kamehameha II’s at Kuamo‘o. The victory by Kamehameha II’s forces established, as a matter of Hawaiian political history, that no Hawaiian could impose kapu prohibitions on another ever again.


Contact

Captain
James Cook James Cook (7 November 1728 Old Style date: 27 October – 14 February 1779) was a British explorer, navigator, cartographer, and captain in the British Royal Navy, famous for his three voyages between 1768 and 1779 in the Pacific Ocean and ...
(1728-1779) led three separate voyages (1768-1779) to chart unknown areas of the globe for Great Britain. On his third voyage he encountered Hawaii, first sighting the islands on 18 January 1778. He anchored off the coast of Kauai and met with the local inhabitants to trade and obtain water and food for his continued voyage. On 2 February 1778, Cook continued on to the coast of the North American continent, searching for a
Northwest Passage The Northwest Passage (NWP) is the sea route between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans through the Arctic Ocean, along the northern coast of North America via waterways through the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. The eastern route along the ...
for approximately nine months. He returned to the Hawaii chain to resupply, initially exploring the coasts of Maui and Hawaii Island to trade. He anchored in
Kealakekua Bay Kealakekua Bay is located on the Kona coast of the island of Hawaii about south of Kailua-Kona. Settled over a thousand years ago, the surrounding area contains many archeological and historical sites such as religious temples (heiaus) and al ...
in January 1779. After departing Kealakekua, he returned in February 1779 after a ship's mast broke in bad weather. On the night of 13 February, while Cook's expedition lay anchored in the bay, Hawaiians stole one of his only two
longboat A longboat is a type of ship's boat that was in use from ''circa'' 1500 or before. Though the Royal Navy replaced longboats with launches from 1780, examples can be found in merchant ships after that date. The longboat was usually the largest boa ...
s (lifeboats used to ferry to/from ship/shore). In retaliation, Cook tried to kidnap the ''aliʻi nui'' of Hawaii Island,
Kalaniʻōpuʻu Kalaniōpuu-a-Kaiamamao (c. 1729 – April 1782) was the aliʻi nui (supreme monarch) of the island of Hawaiʻi. He was called ''Terreeoboo, King of Owhyhee'' by James Cook and other Europeans. His name has also been written as Kaleiopuu. Bio ...
. On 14 February 1779 Cook confronted an angry crowd. Kanaʻina approached Cook, who reacted by striking the royal attendant with the broad side of his sword. Kanaʻina picked up the navigator and dropped him while another attendant, Nuaa, killed Cook with a knife.


Kingdom of Hawaii

The Kingdom of Hawaii lasted from 1795 until its overthrow in 1893 with the fall of the House of Kalakaua.


House of Kamehameha

The ''House of Kamehameha'' ''(Hale O Kamehameha)'', or the ''Kamehameha dynasty'', was the reigning Royal Family of the
Kingdom of Hawaii The Hawaiian Kingdom, or Kingdom of Hawaiʻi ( Hawaiian: ''Ko Hawaiʻi Pae ʻĀina''), was a sovereign state located in the Hawaiian Islands. The country was formed in 1795, when the warrior chief Kamehameha the Great, of the independent islan ...
, beginning with its founding by
Kamehameha I Kamehameha I (; Kalani Paiea Wohi o Kaleikini Kealiikui Kamehameha o Iolani i Kaiwikapu kaui Ka Liholiho Kūnuiākea;  – May 8 or 14, 1819), also known as Kamehameha the Great, was the conqueror and first ruler of the Kingdom of Hawaii. Th ...
in 1795 and ending with the deaths of
Kamehameha V Kamehameha V (Lota Kapuāiwa Kalanimakua Aliʻiōlani Kalanikupuapaʻīkalaninui; December 11, 1830 – December 11, 1872), reigned as the fifth monarch of the Kingdom of Hawaiʻi from 1863 to 1872. His motto was "Onipaʻa": immovable, firm, s ...
in 1872 and
William Charles Lunalilo Lunalilo (William Charles Lunalilo; January 31, 1835 – February 3, 1874) was the sixth monarch of the Hawaiian Kingdom, Kingdom of Hawaii from his election on January 8, 1873, until his death a year later. Born to Kekāuluohi and Charles Kana ...
in 1874. The origins of the House of Kamehameha can be traced to half brothers,
Kalaniʻōpuʻu Kalaniōpuu-a-Kaiamamao (c. 1729 – April 1782) was the aliʻi nui (supreme monarch) of the island of Hawaiʻi. He was called ''Terreeoboo, King of Owhyhee'' by James Cook and other Europeans. His name has also been written as Kaleiopuu. Bio ...
and Keōua. Kalaniʻōpuʻu's father was Kalaninuiʻīamamao while Keōua's father was
Kalanikeʻeaumoku Kalanikeʻeaumoku was an aliʻi (noble) of Hawaii (island) of the Kona district and part of Kohala district and grandfather of Kamehameha I. Family His mother was Kalanikauleleiaiwi and his father was Keaweʻīkekahialiʻiokamoku. He would ' ...
, both sons of
Keaweʻīkekahialiʻiokamoku Keaweīkekahialiiokamoku (c. 1665 – c. 1725) was the king of Hawaii Island in the late 17th century. He was the great-grandfather of Kamehameha I, the first king of the Kingdom of Hawaii. He was a progenitor of the House of Keawe. Biography He ...
. They shared a common mother,
Kamakaʻīmoku Kamakaʻīmoku was a chiefess in ancient Hawaii in the early 18th century. She married three powerful men of the time, was mother of the King who would unite the island of Hawaii and meet the first known visitors from Europe, and grandmother of ...
. Both brothers served Alapaʻinui, the ruling King of Hawaii Island. Hawaiian genealogy notes that Keōua may not have been Kamehameha's biological father, and that
Kahekili II Kahekili II, full name Kahekilinuiʻahumanu, (c. 1737–1794) was an ali'i (''Moʻi'') of Maui. His name was short for Kāne-Hekili after the Hawaiian god of thunder. Because Kāne-Hekili was believed to be black on one side, Kahekili tattooed on ...
might have been his biological father. Regardless, Kamehameha I's descent from Keawe remains intact through his mother, Kekuʻiapoiwa II, a granddaughter of Keawe. Keōua acknowledged him as his son and this relationship is recognized by official genealogies. The traditional mele chant of Keaka, wife of Alapainui, indicates that Kamehameha I was born in the month of ''ikuwā'' (winter) around November. Alapai gave the young Kamehameha to his wife Keaka and her sister Hākau to care for after the ruler discovered the boy had lived. Samuel Kamakau, wrote, ''"It was during the time of the warfare among the chiefs of he island ofHawaii which followed the death of Keawe, chief over the whole island (Ke-awe-i-kekahi-aliʻi-o-ka-moku) that Kamehameha I was born"''. However, his general dating was challenged. Abraham Fornander wrote, ''"when Kamehameha died in 1819 he was past eighty years old. His birth would thus fall between 1736 and 1740, probably nearer the former than the latter"''. William De Witt Alexander lists the birth date as 1736. He was first named Paiea but took the name Kamehameha, meaning "The very lonely one" or "The one set alone". Kamehameha's uncle Kalaniʻōpuʻu raised him after Keōua's death. Kalaniʻōpuʻu ruled Hawaii as did his grandfather Keawe. He had advisors and priests. When word reached the ruler that chiefs were planning to murder the boy, he told Kamehameha: After Kalaniʻōpuʻu's death, Kīwalaʻō took his father's place as first born and ruled the island while Kamehameha became the religious authority. Some chiefs supported Kamehameha and war soon broke out to overthrow Kīwalaʻō. After multiple battles the king was killed and envoys sent for the last two brothers to meet with Kamehameha. Keōua and Kaōleiokū arrived in separate canoes. Keōua came to shore first where a fight broke out and he and all aboard were killed. Before the same could happen to the second canoe, Kamehameha intervened. In 1793 Captain
George Vancouver Captain George Vancouver (22 June 1757 – 10 May 1798) was a British Royal Navy officer best known for his 1791–1795 expedition, which explored and charted North America's northwestern Pacific Coast regions, including the coasts of what are ...
sailed from Britain and presented the
Union Flag The Union Jack, or Union Flag, is the ''de facto'' national flag of the United Kingdom. Although no law has been passed making the Union Flag the official national flag of the United Kingdom, it has effectively become such through precedent. ...
to Kamehameha, who was still in the process of uniting the islands into a single state; the Union Jack flew unofficially as the flag of Hawaii until 1816, including during a brief spell of British rule after Kamehameha ceded Hawaii to Vancouver in 1794. By 1795, Kamehameha had conquered all but one of the main islands. For his first royal residence, the new King built the first western-style structure in the
Hawaiian Islands The Hawaiian Islands ( haw, Nā Mokupuni o Hawai‘i) are an archipelago of eight major islands, several atolls, and numerous smaller islets in the North Pacific Ocean, extending some from the island of Hawaii in the south to northernmost ...
, known as the "
Brick Palace The Brick Palace was the first western-style structure built in the Hawaiian Islands for Kamehameha the Great to serve as the first Royal Palace. Lahaina became the seat of government for the Hawaiian Kingdom until 1845. The king commissioned the ...
". The location became the
seat of government The seat of government is (as defined by ''Brewer's Politics'') "the building, complex of buildings or the city from which a government exercises its authority". In most countries, the nation’s capital is also seat of its government, thus that ...
for the
Hawaiian Kingdom The Hawaiian Kingdom, or Kingdom of Hawaiʻi (Hawaiian language, Hawaiian: ''Ko Hawaiʻi Pae ʻĀina''), was a sovereign state located in the Hawaiian Islands. The country was formed in 1795, when the warrior chief Kamehameha the Great, of the ...
until 1845. The king commissioned the structure to be built at Keawa'iki point in Lahaina, Maui. Two ex-convicts from
Australia Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a sovereign country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous smaller islands. With an area of , Australia is the largest country by ...
's
Botany Bay Botany Bay ( Dharawal: ''Kamay''), an open oceanic embayment, is located in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia, south of the Sydney central business district. Its source is the confluence of the Georges River at Taren Point and the Cook ...
penal colony built the home. It was begun in 1798 and was completed after 4 years in 1802. The house was intended for
Kaʻahumanu Kaahumanu (March 17, 1768 – June 5, 1832) (''"the feathered mantle"'') was queen consort and acted as regent of the Kingdom of Hawaii as Kuhina Nui. She was the favorite wife of King Kamehameha I and also the most politically powerful, ...
, but she refused to live in the structure and resided instead in an adjacent, traditional Hawaiian-styled home. Kamehameha I had many wives but held two in the highest regard. Keōpūolani was the highest ranking aliʻi of her time and mother to his sons, Liholiho and Kauikeaouli. Kaʻahumanu was his favorite. Kamehameha I died in 1819, succeeded by Liholiho.


Kamehameha II

After Kamehameha I's death, Liholiho left Kailua for a week and returned to be crowned king. At the lavish ceremony attended by commoners and nobles he approached the circle of chiefs, as Kaʻahumanu, the central figure in the group and Dowager Queen, said, ''"Hear me O Divine one, for I make known to you the will of your father. Behold these chiefs and the men of your father, and these your guns, and this your land, but you and I shall share the realm together".'' Liholiho agreed officially, which began a unique system of dual-government consisting of a King and co-ruler similar to a
regent A regent (from Latin : ruling, governing) is a person appointed to govern a state '' pro tempore'' (Latin: 'for the time being') because the monarch is a minor, absent, incapacitated or unable to discharge the powers and duties of the monarchy ...
. Kamehameha II shared his rule with his stepmother, Kaʻahumanu. She defied Hawaiian ''kapu'' by dining with the young king, separating the sexes during meals, leading to the end of the
Hawaiian religion Hawaiian religion refers to the indigenous religious beliefs and practices of native Hawaiians, also known as the kapu system. Hawaiian religion is based largely on the tapu religion common in Polynesia and likely originated among the Tahitia ...
. Kamehameha II died, along with his wife, Queen Kamāmalu in 1824 on a state visit to England, succumbing to
measles Measles is a highly contagious infectious disease caused by measles virus. Symptoms usually develop 10–12 days after exposure to an infected person and last 7–10 days. Initial symptoms typically include fever, often greater than , cough, ...
. He was King for 5 years. The couple's remains were returned to Hawaii by Boki. Aboard the ship ''The Blond'' his wife Liliha and Kekūanāoʻa were
baptized Baptism (from grc-x-koine, βάπτισμα, váptisma) is a form of ritual purification—a characteristic of many religions throughout time and geography. In Christianity, it is a Christian sacrament of initiation and adoption, almost i ...
as Christians. Kaʻahumanu also converted and became a powerful Christian influence on Hawaiian society until her death in 1832. Since the new king was only 12 years old, Kaʻahumanu was now senior ruler and named Boki as her
Kuhina Nui Kuhina Nui was a powerful office in the Kingdom of Hawaii from 1819 to 1864. It was usually held by a relative of the king and was the rough equivalent of the 19th-century European office of Prime Minister or sometimes Regent. Origin of the offi ...
. Boki left Hawaii on a trip to find
sandalwood Sandalwood is a class of woods from trees in the genus '' Santalum''. The woods are heavy, yellow, and fine-grained, and, unlike many other aromatic woods, they retain their fragrance for decades. Sandalwood oil is extracted from the woods for ...
to cover a debt and was lost at sea. His wife, Liliha took the governorship of
Maui The island of Maui (; Hawaiian: ) is the second-largest of the islands of the state of Hawaii at 727.2 square miles (1,883 km2) and is the 17th largest island in the United States. Maui is the largest of Maui County's four islands, whic ...
and unsuccessfully attempted to whip up a revolt against Kaʻahumanu, who upon Boki's departure, had installed
Kīnaʻu Princess Kalani Ahumanu i Kaliko o Iwi Kauhipua o Kīnau, also known as Elizabeth Kīnau ( – April 4, 1839) was Kuhina Nui of the Kingdom of Hawaii as Kaahumanu II, Queen regent and Dowager Queen. Life Her father was King Kamehameha I and he ...
as a co-governor.


Kaʻahumanu

Kaʻahumanu was born on
Maui The island of Maui (; Hawaiian: ) is the second-largest of the islands of the state of Hawaii at 727.2 square miles (1,883 km2) and is the 17th largest island in the United States. Maui is the largest of Maui County's four islands, whic ...
around 1777. Her parents were ''aliʻi'' of a lower-ranking line. She became Kamehameha's consort when she was fourteen.
George Vancouver Captain George Vancouver (22 June 1757 – 10 May 1798) was a British Royal Navy officer best known for his 1791–1795 expedition, which explored and charted North America's northwestern Pacific Coast regions, including the coasts of what are ...
states: ''" e of the finest woman we had yet seen on any of the islands"''. To wed the young woman, Kamehameha had to consent to make her children his heirs to the Kingdom, although she had no issue. Before his death, Kamehameha selected Kaʻahumanu to rule along with his son. Kaʻahumanu had also adopted the boy. She had the highest political clout in the islands. A portrait artist remarked of her: ''"This Old Dame is the most proud, unbending Lady in the whole island. As the widow of amehameha she possesses unbound authority and respect, not any of which she is inclined to lay aside on any occasion whatsoever"''. She was one of Hawaii's most influential leaders.


The Royal Election of 1874 and Sugar reciprocity

Sugar became a major export from Hawaii soon after Cook's arrival. The first permanent plantation began in
Kauai Kauai, () anglicized as Kauai ( ), is geologically the second-oldest of the main Hawaiian Islands (after Niʻihau). With an area of 562.3 square miles (1,456.4 km2), it is the fourth-largest of these islands and the 21st largest islan ...
in 1835. William Hooper leased 980 acres of land from
Kamehameha III Kamehameha III (born Kauikeaouli) (March 17, 1814 – December 15, 1854) was the third king of the Kingdom of Hawaii from 1825 to 1854. His full Hawaiian name is Keaweaweula Kīwalaō Kauikeaouli Kaleiopapa and then lengthened to Keaweaweula Kī ...
and began growing
sugarcane Sugarcane or sugar cane is a species of (often hybrid) tall, perennial grass (in the genus '' Saccharum'', tribe Andropogoneae) that is used for sugar production. The plants are 2–6 m (6–20 ft) tall with stout, jointed, fibrous stalk ...
. Within thirty years plantations operated on the four main islands. Sugar completely altered Hawaii's economy. American influence in Hawaiian government began with U.S. plantation owners demanding a say in Kingdom politics. This was driven by missionary religion and sugar economics. Pressure from these plantation owners was felt by the King and chiefs as demands for land tenure. After the brief 1843 takeover by the British, Kamehameha III responded to the demands with the
Great Mahele Great may refer to: Descriptions or measurements * Great, a relative measurement in physical space, see Size * Greatness, being divine, majestic, superior, majestic, or transcendent People * List of people known as "the Great" *Artel Great (born ...
, distributing the lands to all Hawaiians as advocated by missionaries including Gerrit P. Judd. Kamehameha III also tried to modernize Hawaii's legal system by replacing indigenous traditions with Anglo-American
common law In law, common law (also known as judicial precedent, judge-made law, or case law) is the body of law created by judges and similar quasi-judicial tribunals by virtue of being stated in written opinions."The common law is not a brooding omniprese ...
. During the 1850s, the U.S. import tariff on sugar from Hawaii was much higher than the import tariffs Hawaiians were charging the U.S., and
Kamehameha III Kamehameha III (born Kauikeaouli) (March 17, 1814 – December 15, 1854) was the third king of the Kingdom of Hawaii from 1825 to 1854. His full Hawaiian name is Keaweaweula Kīwalaō Kauikeaouli Kaleiopapa and then lengthened to Keaweaweula Kī ...
sought reciprocity. The monarch wished to lower U.S. tariffs and make Hawaiian sugar competitive with other foreign suppliers. In 1854 Kamehameha III proposed a policy of reciprocity between the countries, but the proposal died in the U.S. Senate. U.S. control of Hawaii was considered vital for the defense of its west coast. The military was especially interested in Pu'uloa, Pearl Harbor. The sale of one harbor was proposed by Charles Reed Bishop, a foreigner who had married into the Kamehameha family, had risen to be Hawaiian Minister of Foreign Affairs and owned a country home near Pu'uloa. He showed two U.S. officers around the lochs, although his wife,
Bernice Pauahi Bishop Bernice Pauahi Bishop KGCOK RoK (December 19, 1831 – October 16, 1884), born Bernice Pauahi Pākī, was an '' alii'' (noble) of the Royal Family of the Kingdom of Hawaii and a well known philanthropist. At her death, her estate was the la ...
, privately disapproved of selling Hawaiian lands. As monarch,
William Charles Lunalilo Lunalilo (William Charles Lunalilo; January 31, 1835 – February 3, 1874) was the sixth monarch of the Hawaiian Kingdom, Kingdom of Hawaii from his election on January 8, 1873, until his death a year later. Born to Kekāuluohi and Charles Kana ...
, was content to let Bishop run most business affairs, but the ceding of lands became unpopular with Hawaiians. Many islanders thought that all the islands, rather than just Pearl Harbor, might be lost and opposed any cession. By November 1873, Lunalilo canceled negotiations but his health declined swiftly, and he died on February 3, 1874, at age of 39. Lunalilo left no heirs. The legislature was empowered by the constitution to elect the monarch in these instances. The legislature decided to hold a public referendum and to choose who the public voted for. Queen Emma and
David Kalākaua David (; , "beloved one") (traditional spelling), , ''Dāwūd''; grc-koi, Δαυΐδ, Dauíd; la, Davidus, David; gez , ዳዊት, ''Dawit''; xcl, Դաւիթ, ''Dawitʿ''; cu, Давíдъ, ''Davidŭ''; possibly meaning "beloved one". w ...
both declared their candidacy. Kalākaua won the election. However, Queen Emma and her supporters were not satisfied. While the legislature was formally voting to certify Kalākaua as King pursuant to the public referendum, Queen Emma's supporters descended on the capitol and attacked the legislators. 13 legislators supporting Kalākaua were injured, including one who died after being tossed from a window. The monarchy had no army and the police deserted, thus the Hawaiian government requested the support of American troops to quell the riot. The legislature then duly elected Kalākaua as Lunalilo's successor. The new ruler was pressured by the U.S. government to surrender Pearl Harbor to the Navy. Kalākaua was concerned that this would lead to annexation by the U.S. and to violating the traditions of the Hawaiian people, who believed that the land ('Āina) was fertile, sacred and not for sale. From 1874 through 1875, Kalākaua made a state visit to Washington DC to gather support for a new treaty. Congress agreed to the
Reciprocity Treaty of 1875 The Treaty of reciprocity between the United States of America and the Hawaiian Kingdom ( Hawaiian: ''Kuʻikahi Pānaʻi Like'') was a free trade agreement signed and ratified in 1875 that is generally known as the Reciprocity Treaty of 1875. T ...
for seven years in exchange for Ford Island (Pearl Harbor). After the treaty, sugar production expanded from 12,000 acres to 125,000 acres in 1891. At the end of the seven-year term, the United States showed little interest in renewal.


Rebellion of 1887 and the Bayonet Constitution

On January 20, 1887, the United States began leasing Pearl Harbor. Shortly afterwards, a group of mostly non-Hawaiians calling themselves the ''Hawaiian Patriotic League'' began the Rebellion of 1887. They drafted their own constitution on July 6, 1887. The new constitution was written by
Lorrin Thurston Lorrin Andrews Thurston (July 31, 1858 – May 11, 1931) was an American lawyer, politician, and businessman born and raised in the Kingdom of Hawaii. Thurston played a prominent role in the Overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom that replaced Q ...
, the Hawaiian Minister of the Interior who used the Hawaiian militia to threaten Kalākaua. Kalākaua was forced to dismiss his cabinet ministers and sign a new constitution that greatly lessened his power. It would become known as the "
Bayonet Constitution The 1887 Constitution of the Hawaiian Kingdom was a legal document prepared by anti-monarchists to strip the Hawaiian monarchy of much of its authority, initiating a transfer of power to American, European and native Hawaiian elites. It became k ...
" due to the threat of force.
Grover Cleveland Stephen Grover Cleveland (March 18, 1837June 24, 1908) was an American lawyer and politician who served as the 22nd and 24th president of the United States from 1885 to 1889 and from 1893 to 1897. Cleveland is the only president in American ...
was president at the time, and his secretary of state
Thomas F. Bayard Thomas Francis Bayard (October 29, 1828 – September 28, 1898) was an American lawyer, politician and diplomat from Wilmington, Delaware. A Democrat, he served three terms as United States Senator from Delaware and made three unsuccessful bids ...
sent written instructions to the American minister George W. Merrill that in the event of another revolution in Hawaii, it was a priority to protect American commerce, lives and property. Bayard specified, "the assistance of the officers of our Government vessels, if found necessary, will therefore be promptly afforded to promote the reign of law and respect for orderly government in Hawaii." In July 1889, there was a small scale rebellion, and Minister Merrill landed Marines to protect Americans; the State Department explicitly approved his action. Merrill's replacement, minister John L. Stevens, read those official instructions, and followed them in his controversial actions of 1893. Although Kalākaua's signature alone had no legal power, the new constitution allowed the monarch to appoint cabinet ministers, but stripped him of the power to dismiss them without approval from the Legislature. Eligibility to vote for the House of Nobles was altered, requiring that both candidates and voters own property valued three thousand dollars or more, or have an annual income of six hundred dollars or more. This disenfranchised two thirds of native Hawaiians and other
ethnic groups An ethnic group or an ethnicity is a grouping of people who identify with each other on the basis of shared attributes that distinguish them from other groups. Those attributes can include common sets of traditions, ancestry, language, history, ...
who had previously been eligible to vote. This constitution benefited the foreign plantation owners. With the legislature now responsible for naturalizing aliens, Americans and Europeans could retain their home country citizenship and vote as citizens of the kingdom. Along with voting privileges, Americans could hold office and still retain their American citizenship, something not afforded in any other nation and even allowed Americans to vote without becoming naturalized. Asian immigrants were no longer able to acquire citizenship or vote.


Wilcox Rebellion of 1888

The Wilcox Rebellion of 1888 was a plot to overthrow King David Kalākaua and replace him with his sister in a
coup d'état A coup d'état (; French for 'stroke of state'), also known as a coup or overthrow, is a seizure and removal of a government and its powers. Typically, it is an illegal seizure of power by a political faction, politician, cult, rebel group, m ...
. This was in response to increased political tension between the legislature and the king under the 1887 constitution. Kalākaua's sister, Princess Liliuokalani and wife,
Queen Kapiolani Queen or QUEEN may refer to: Monarchy * Queen regnant, a female monarch of a Kingdom ** List of queens regnant * Queen consort, the wife of a reigning king * Queen dowager, the widow of a king * Queen mother, a queen dowager who is the mother ...
returned from
Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee The Golden Jubilee of Queen Victoria was celebrated on 20 and 21 June 1887 to mark the 50th anniversary of Queen Victoria's accession on 20 June 1837. It was celebrated with a Thanksgiving Service at Westminster Abbey, and a banquet to which ...
immediately after news reached them in
Great Britain Great Britain is an island in the North Atlantic Ocean off the northwest coast of continental Europe. With an area of , it is the largest of the British Isles, the largest European island and the ninth-largest island in the world. It ...
. Kalākaua's distant cousin, a native Hawaiian officer and veteran of the
Italian Italian(s) may refer to: * Anything of, from, or related to the people of Italy over the centuries ** Italians, an ethnic group or simply a citizen of the Italian Republic or Italian Kingdom ** Italian language, a Romance language *** Regional Ita ...
military A military, also known collectively as armed forces, is a heavily armed, highly organized force primarily intended for warfare. It is typically authorized and maintained by a sovereign state, with its members identifiable by their distinct ...
, Robert William Wilcox returned to Hawaii at about the same time as Liliuokalani in October 1887 when the funding for his study program stopped. Wilcox, Charles B. Wilson, Princess Liliuokalani, and Sam Nowlein plotted to overthrow King Kalākaua and replace him with Liliuokalani. 300 Hawaiian conspirators hid in
Iolani Barracks Iolani is a masculine Hawaiian name meaning "royal ''hawk''." It comes from the Hawaiian words ''ʻio'', meaning " Hawaiian hawk," and ''lani'', meaning "royal." It may refer to: * ʻIolani School, a private school located in Hawaii *ʻIolani Pal ...
and an alliance was formed with the Royal Guard, but the plot was accidentally discovered in January 1888, less than 48 hours before the revolt. No one was prosecuted, but Wilcox was
exile Exile is primarily penal expulsion from one's native country, and secondarily expatriation or prolonged absence from one's homeland under either the compulsion of circumstance or the rigors of some high purpose. Usually persons and peoples suf ...
d. On February 11, 1888, Wilcox left Hawaii for San Francisco, intending to return to Italy with his wife. Princess Liliuokalani was offered the throne several times by the Missionary Party who had forced the Bayonet Constitution on her brother, but she believed she would become a powerless figurehead like her brother and rejected the offers. In January 1891, Kalākaua traveled to San Francisco for his health, staying at the Palace Hotel. He died there on January 20. She then ascended the throne. Queen Liliuokalani called her brother's reign "a golden age materially for Hawaii".


Liliuokalani's attempt to re-write Constitution

Liliuokalani assumed the throne in the middle of an economic crisis. The McKinley Act had crippled the Hawaiian sugar industry by removing the duties on sugar imports from other countries into the US, eliminating the previous Hawaiian advantage due to the Reciprocity Treaty of 1875. Many Hawaii businesses and citizens lost revenue; in response Liliuokalani proposed a
lottery A lottery is a form of gambling that involves the drawing of numbers at random for a prize. Some governments outlaw lotteries, while others endorse it to the extent of organizing a national or state lottery. It is common to find some degree of ...
system to raise money for her government. Controversially,
opium Opium (or poppy tears, scientific name: ''Lachryma papaveris'') is dried latex obtained from the seed capsules of the opium poppy '' Papaver somniferum''. Approximately 12 percent of opium is made up of the analgesic alkaloid morphine, which ...
licensing was proposed. Her ministers and closest friends were all opposed to this plan; they unsuccessfully tried to dissuade her from pursuing these initiatives, both of which came to be used against her in the brewing constitutional crisis. Liliuokalani's chief desire was to restore power to the monarch by abrogating the 1887 Bayonet Constitution and promulgating a new one. The 1893 Constitution would have extended suffrage by reducing some property requirements. It would have disenfranchised many non-citizen Europeans and Americans. The Queen toured several islands on horseback, talking to the people about her ideas and receiving overwhelming support, including a lengthy petition in support of a new constitution. However, when the Queen informed her cabinet of her plans, they withheld their support, uncomfortable with what they expected her opponent's likely response to be. Liliuokalani's attempt to promulgate a new constitution on January 14, 1893, was the precipitating event leading to the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii three days later. The conspirators' stated goals were to depose the queen, overthrow the monarchy, and seek Hawaii's annexation to the U.S. The conspirators were five American, one English and one German national.


Overthrow

The overthrow was led by Thurston, who was the grandson of American missionaries and derived his support primarily from the American and European business class and other supporters of the
Reform Party of the Hawaiian Kingdom The Reform Party, also referred to as "the Missionary Party", or the "Down-Town Party", was a political party in the Kingdom of Hawaii. It was founded by descendants of Protestant missionaries that came to Hawaii from New England. Following the Ann ...
. Most of the leaders of the Committee of Safety that deposed the queen were American and European citizens who were Kingdom subjects. They included legislators, government officers and a Supreme Court Justice of the Hawaiian Kingdom. On January 16, the Marshal of the Kingdom, Charles B. Wilson was tipped off by detectives of the planned coup. Wilson requested
warrants Warrant may refer to: * Warrant (law), a form of specific authorization ** Arrest warrant, authorizing the arrest and detention of an individual ** Search warrant, a court order issued that authorizes law enforcement to conduct a search for eviden ...
to arrest the 13 Council members and put the Kingdom under
martial law Martial law is the imposition of direct military control of normal civil functions or suspension of civil law by a government, especially in response to an emergency where civil forces are overwhelmed, or in an occupied territory. Use Martia ...
. Because the members had strong political ties with U.S. Government Minister John L. Stevens, the requests were repeatedly denied by Attorney General Arthur P. Peterson and the Queen's cabinet, fearing if approved, the arrests would escalate the situation. After a failed negotiation with Thurston, Wilson began to collect his troops for the confrontation. Wilson and Captain of the Royal Household Guard Samuel Nowlein rallied a force of 496 troops who were kept at hand to protect the Queen. The overthrow began on January 17, 1893. A policeman was shot and wounded while trying to stop a wagon carrying weapons to the
Honolulu Rifles The Honolulu Rifles were the name of two volunteer military companies of the Hawaiian Kingdom. First company In 1857, the First Hawaiian Cavalry, an artillery and infantry company which was originally established in 1852, was renamed the Honolulu ...
, the paramilitary wing of the Committee of Safety. The Committee feared the shooting would bring government forces to rout the conspirators and stop the coup before it could begin. The Committee of Safety initiated the overthrow by organizing the
Honolulu Rifles The Honolulu Rifles were the name of two volunteer military companies of the Hawaiian Kingdom. First company In 1857, the First Hawaiian Cavalry, an artillery and infantry company which was originally established in 1852, was renamed the Honolulu ...
made of about 1,500 armed local (non-native) men. The Rifles garrisoned Ali'iolani Hale across the street from
ʻIolani Palace The Iolani Palace ( haw, Hale Aliʻi ʻIolani) was the royal residence of the rulers of the Kingdom of Hawaii beginning with Kamehameha III under the Kamehameha Dynasty (1845) and ending with Queen Liliʻuokalani (1893) under the Kalākaua Dyn ...
and waited for the Queen's response. As these events were unfolding, the Committee of Safety expressed concern for the safety and property of American residents in Honolulu.


United States military support

The coup efforts were supported by U.S. Government Minister John L. Stevens. The coup left the queen under house arrest at
Iolani Palace Iolani is a masculine Hawaiian name meaning "royal ''hawk''." It comes from the Hawaiian words ''ʻio'', meaning "Hawaiian hawk," and ''lani'', meaning "royal." It may refer to: *ʻIolani School, a private school located in Hawaii *ʻIolani Palac ...
. The Kingdom briefly became the Republic of Hawaii, before annexation by the United States in 1898. Advised about supposed threats to non-combatant American lives and property by the Committee of Safety, Stevens summoned a company of uniformed U.S. Marines from the USS ''Boston'' and two companies of U.S. sailors to take up positions at the U.S. Legation, Consulate and Arion Hall on the afternoon of January 16, 1893. 162 armed sailors and
Marines Marines, or naval infantry, are typically a military force trained to operate in littoral zones in support of naval operations. Historically, tasks undertaken by marines have included helping maintain discipline and order aboard the ship (refl ...
aboard the USS ''Boston'' in Honolulu Harbor came ashore under orders of neutrality. The sailors and Marines did not enter the Palace grounds or take over any buildings, and never fired a shot, but their presence intimidated royalist defenders. Historian William Russ states, "the injunction to prevent fighting of any kind made it impossible for the monarchy to protect itself."


United States territory


Annexation

In March 1897,
William McKinley William McKinley (January 29, 1843September 14, 1901) was the 25th president of the United States, serving from 1897 until his assassination in 1901. As a politician he led a realignment that made his Republican Party largely dominant in t ...
, a Republican expansionist, succeeded Democrat
Grover Cleveland Stephen Grover Cleveland (March 18, 1837June 24, 1908) was an American lawyer and politician who served as the 22nd and 24th president of the United States from 1885 to 1889 and from 1893 to 1897. Cleveland is the only president in American ...
as U.S. President. He prepared a treaty of
annexation Annexation (Latin ''ad'', to, and ''nexus'', joining), in international law, is the forcible acquisition of one state's territory by another state, usually following military occupation of the territory. It is generally held to be an illegal act ...
but it lacked the needed 2/3 majority in the
Senate A senate is a deliberative assembly, often the upper house or chamber of a bicameral legislature. The name comes from the ancient Roman Senate (Latin: ''Senatus''), so-called as an assembly of the senior (Latin: ''senex'' meaning "the el ...
given Democratic opposition. A
joint resolution In the United States Congress, a joint resolution is a legislative measure that requires passage by the Senate and the House of Representatives and is presented to the President for their approval or disapproval. Generally, there is no legal diff ...
, written by Democratic Congressman Francis G. Newlands to annex Hawaii passed both the House and Senate; it needed only majority support. The U.S. Supreme Court gave tacit recognition to the legitimacy of this annexation in De Lima v. Bidwell, 182 U.S. 1, 196 (1901). The
Spanish–American War , partof = the Philippine Revolution, the decolonization of the Americas, and the Cuban War of Independence , image = Collage infobox for Spanish-American War.jpg , image_size = 300px , caption = (clock ...
had broken out and many leaders wanted control of Pearl Harbor to help the United States to become a Pacific power and protect the West Coast. Kalākaua was concerned over a possible United States seizure of the Hawaiian Islands and, in Kalākaua's 1881 world tour held a secret meeting with the Japanese Emperor to bring Hawaii under the protective aegis. He proposed to unite the two nations with an arranged marriage between his 5-year-old niece Princess Kaʻiulani and 13-year-old Prince Yamashina Sadamaro. His proposal was rejected by Japan because Japan was concerned that accepting this offer will worsen the diplomatic conflict between Japan and the United States. In 1897 Japan sent warships to Hawaii to oppose annexation. The possibility of invasion and annexation by Japan made the decision even more urgent, especially since the islands' fourth population was Japanese who were largely sympathetic to their country's goal in doing so. McKinley signed the
Newlands Resolution The Newlands Resolution was a joint resolution passed on July 7, 1898, by the United States Congress to annex the independent Republic of Hawaii. In 1900, Congress created the Territory of Hawaii. The resolution was drafted by Representative Fr ...
annexing Hawaii on July 7, 1898, creating the
Territory of Hawaii The Territory of Hawaii or Hawaii Territory ( Hawaiian: ''Panalāʻau o Hawaiʻi'') was an organized incorporated territory of the United States that existed from April 30, 1900, until August 21, 1959, when most of its territory, excluding ...
. On 22 February 1900 the Hawaiian Organic Act established a territorial government. Annexation opponents held that this was illegal, claiming the Queen was the only legitimate ruler. McKinley appointed
Sanford B. Dole Sanford Ballard Dole (April 23, 1844 – June 9, 1926) was a lawyer and jurist from the Hawaiian Islands. He lived through the periods when Hawaii was a kingdom, protectorate, republic, and territory. A descendant of the American missionar ...
as territorial governor. The territorial legislature convened for the first time on February 20, 1901. Hawaiians formed the Hawaiian Independent Party, under the leadership of Robert Wilcox, Hawaii's first congressional delegate.


Plantations

Sugarcane Sugarcane or sugar cane is a species of (often hybrid) tall, perennial grass (in the genus '' Saccharum'', tribe Andropogoneae) that is used for sugar production. The plants are 2–6 m (6–20 ft) tall with stout, jointed, fibrous stalk ...
plantations in Hawaii expanded during the territorial period. Some companies diversified and came to dominate related industries including transportation, banking and real estate. Economic and political power was concentrated in what were known as the " Big Five". A 1909 strike by Japanese farm workers led to a brief experiment importing Russian laborers, mostly from Siberia. False promises of land grants by a recruiter named A.W. Perelstrous resulted in strikes among the Russian workers as well. Experiencing many hardships including a measles outbreak, lack of ability to communicate with Hawaiians, and culture clashes, most Russians ended up moving to California, New York, or back to Russia (mostly after the 1917
Russian Revolution The Russian Revolution was a period of political and social revolution that took place in the former Russian Empire which began during the First World War. This period saw Russia abolish its monarchy and adopt a socialist form of government ...
).


World War II


Attack on Pearl Harbor

Pearl Harbor Pearl Harbor is an American lagoon harbor on the island of Oahu, Hawaii, west of Honolulu. It was often visited by the Naval fleet of the United States, before it was acquired from the Hawaiian Kingdom by the U.S. with the signing of the ...
was attacked on December 7, 1941, by the
Imperial Japanese Navy The Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN; Kyūjitai: Shinjitai: ' 'Navy of the Greater Japanese Empire', or ''Nippon Kaigun'', 'Japanese Navy') was the navy of the Empire of Japan from 1868 to 1945, when it was dissolved following Japan's surrender ...
, killing almost 2,500 people and sinking the main American
battleship A battleship is a large armour, armored warship with a main artillery battery, battery consisting of large caliber guns. It dominated naval warfare in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The term ''battleship'' came into use in the late 1 ...
fleet. Fortuitously for the Americans, the four Pacific
aircraft carrier An aircraft carrier is a warship that serves as a seagoing airbase, equipped with a full-length flight deck and facilities for carrying, arming, deploying, and recovering aircraft. Typically, it is the capital ship of a fleet, as it allows a ...
s were not in port and escaped damage. Hawaii was put under martial law until 1945. Unlike the
West Coast of the United States The West Coast of the United States, also known as the Pacific Coast, Pacific states, and the western seaboard, is the coastline along which the Western United States meets the North Pacific Ocean. The term typically refers to the contiguous U.S ...
in which 100,000 ethnic Japanese citizens were interned, the Japanese American population in Hawaii completely avoided such similar fate, though hundreds of pro-Japan leaders were arrested. Pearl Harbor was the U.S.' main forward base for the Pacific War. The Japanese tried to invade in summer 1942 but were defeated at the
Battle of Midway The Battle of Midway was a major naval battle in the Pacific Theater of World War II that took place on 4–7 June 1942, six months after Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor and one month after the Battle of the Coral Sea. The U.S. Navy under ...
. Hundreds of thousands of American soldiers, sailors, Marines, and airmen passed through on their way to the fighting. Many Hawaii residents served in the 442nd Regimental Combat Team, a
U.S. Army The United States Army (USA) is the land service branch of the United States Armed Forces. It is one of the eight U.S. uniformed services, and is designated as the Army of the United States in the U.S. Constitution.Article II, section 2, cl ...
infantry Infantry is a military specialization which engages in ground combat on foot. Infantry generally consists of light infantry, mountain infantry, motorized infantry & mechanized infantry, airborne infantry, air assault infantry, and mar ...
 
regiment A regiment is a military unit. Its role and size varies markedly, depending on the country, service and/or a specialisation. In Medieval Europe, the term "regiment" denoted any large body of front-line soldiers, recruited or conscript ...
. The regiment was composed almost entirely of  American soldiers of Japanese ancestry. The regiment fought primarily in
Italy Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic, ) or the Republic of Italy, is a country in Southern Europe. It is located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, and its territory largely coincides with the homonymous geographical ...
, 
southern France Southern France, also known as the South of France or colloquially in French as , is a defined geographical area consisting of the regions of France that border the Atlantic Ocean south of the Marais Poitevin,Louis Papy, ''Le midi atlantique'', A ...
and 
Germany Germany,, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It is the second most populous country in Europe after Russia, and the most populous member state of the European Union. Germany is situated betwee ...
. The 442nd Regiment was the most decorated unit for its size and length of service in American history. Its 4,000 members had to be replaced nearly 2.5 times due to casualties. In total, about 14,000 Hawaiians served, earning 9,486 
Purple Heart The Purple Heart (PH) is a United States military decoration awarded in the name of the President to those wounded or killed while serving, on or after 5 April 1917, with the U.S. military. With its forerunner, the Badge of Military Merit, ...
s. The unit was awarded eight  Presidential Unit Citations (five in one month). Twenty-one of its members, including Hawaii U.S. Senator
Daniel Inouye Daniel Ken Inouye ( ; September 7, 1924 – December 17, 2012) was an American lawyer and politician who served as a United States senator from Hawaii from 1963 until his death in 2012. Beginning in 1959, he was the first U.S. representative ...
, were awarded  Medals of Honor. Its motto was "Go for Broke".


Democratic Party

In 1954 a series of non-violent industry-wide strikes,
protests A protest (also called a demonstration, remonstration or remonstrance) is a public expression of objection, disapproval or dissent towards an idea or action, typically a political one. Protests can be thought of as acts of coopera ...
and other
civil disobedience Civil disobedience is the active, professed refusal of a citizen to obey certain laws, demands, orders or commands of a government (or any other authority). By some definitions, civil disobedience has to be nonviolent to be called "civil". H ...
transpired. In the territorial elections of 1954 the reign of the
Hawaii Republican Party The Hawaii Republican Party ( haw, ʻAoʻao Lepupalika o Hawaiʻi) is the affiliate of the Republican Party (GOP) in Hawaii, headquartered in Honolulu. The party was initially strong during Hawaii's territorial days, but following statehood the ...
in the legislature came to an abrupt end, replaced by the
Democratic Party of Hawaii The Democratic Party of Hawaii ( haw, ʻAoʻao Demokalaka o Hawaiʻi) is the affiliate of the Democratic Party in the state of Hawaii. The party is a centralized organization established to promote the party platform as drafted in convention ...
. Democrats lobbied for statehood and held the governorship from 1962 to 2002. The events also unionized the labor force, hastening the plantations' decline.


Statehood

President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed the Hawaii Admission Act on March 18, 1959, which allowed for Hawaiian statehood. After a popular referendum in which over 93% voted in favor of statehood, Hawaii was admitted as the 50th state on August 21, 1959.


Annexation legacy

For all of recorded history prior to annexation, including all census counts made during the Kingdom of Hawaii, the number of Native Hawaiians in Hawaii declined. The lowest recorded number of Native Hawaiians in Hawaii was 37,656 in the first census conducted by the United States in 1900 after the annexation of Hawaii to the United States in 1898. Since Hawaii has joined the United States the Native Hawaiian population in Hawaii has increased with every census to 289,970 in 2010. For many
Native Hawaiians Native Hawaiians (also known as Indigenous Hawaiians, Kānaka Maoli, Aboriginal Hawaiians, First Hawaiians, or simply Hawaiians) ( haw, kānaka, , , and ), are the indigenous ethnic group of Polynesian people of the Hawaiian Islands. Hawa ...
, the manner in which Hawaii became a U.S. territory was illegal. However, many Hawaiians are also proud to be Hawaiians and Americans and believe the manner in which Hawaii became a U.S. State was legal. Hawaii Territory governors and judges were direct political appointees of the U.S. President. Native Hawaiians created the Home Rule Party to seek greater self-government. The 1960s
Hawaiian Renaissance The Hawaiian Renaissance (also called the Hawaiian Cultural Renaissance) was the Hawaiian resurgence of a distinct cultural identity that draws upon traditional kānaka maoli culture, with a significant divergence from the tourism-based culture ...
led to renewed interest in the
Hawaiian language Hawaiian (', ) is a Polynesian language of the Austronesian language family that takes its name from Hawaii, the largest island in the tropical North Pacific archipelago where it developed. Hawaiian, along with English, is an official language ...
, culture and identity. With the support of Hawaii Senators
Daniel Inouye Daniel Ken Inouye ( ; September 7, 1924 – December 17, 2012) was an American lawyer and politician who served as a United States senator from Hawaii from 1963 until his death in 2012. Beginning in 1959, he was the first U.S. representative ...
and
Daniel Akaka Daniel Kahikina Akaka (; September 11, 1924 – April 6, 2018) was an American educator and politician who served as a United States Senate, United States Senator from Hawaii from 1990 to 2013. A member of the Democratic Party (United States), De ...
, Congress passed a joint resolution called the "
Apology Resolution United States Public Law 103-150, informally known as the Apology Resolution, is a Joint Resolution of the U.S. Congress adopted in 1993 that "acknowledges that the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii occurred with the active participation of age ...
" ( US Public Law 103-150). It was signed by President
Bill Clinton William Jefferson Clinton (né Blythe III; born August 19, 1946) is an American politician who served as the 42nd president of the United States from 1993 to 2001. He previously served as governor of Arkansas from 1979 to 1981 and again ...
on November 23, 1993. This resolution apologized "to Native Hawaiians on behalf of the people of the United States for the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii on January 17, 1893... and the deprivation of the rights of Native Hawaiians to self-determination." The implications of this resolution have been extensively debated. The resolution's description of the history of Hawaii is also selective and inflammatory and has been thoroughly criticized, ignoring entirely, for example, the fact that the overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom was led by Hawaiian citizens on the Committee of Safety. The resolution also fails to explain why it would only apply to Native Hawaiians as defined as people descended from persons living in Hawaii prior to Captain Cook's arrival in 1778, as opposed to all subjects of the Kingdom, since in theory all subjects would have been the victims of the overthrow because citizenship in the Kingdom was not limited to persons descended from people living in Hawaii prior to 1778. In 2000, Akaka proposed what was called the Akaka Bill to extend federal recognition to those of
Native Hawaiian Native Hawaiians (also known as Indigenous Hawaiians, Kānaka Maoli, Aboriginal Hawaiians, First Hawaiians, or simply Hawaiians) ( haw, kānaka, , , and ), are the indigenous ethnic group of Polynesian people of the Hawaiian Islands. Hawa ...
ancestry as a sovereign group similar to Native American tribes. The bill did not pass before his retirement.


See also

* Women's suffrage in Hawaii * Legal status of Hawaii *
List of conflicts in Hawaii This is a list of wars, bloodless wars, battles, conspiracies, rebellions, revolutions, nonviolent revolutions, massacres, and terrorist attacks in the Hawaiian Islands. Ancient Warfare There were many ancient Hawaiian battles and wars throug ...
*
List of Missionaries to Hawaii This is a list of missionaries to Hawaii. Before European exploration, the Hawaiian religion was brought from Tahiti by Paʻao according to oral tradition. Notable missionaries with written records below are generally Christian. Protestant Ame ...
*
National Register of Historic Places listings in Hawaii This is a list of properties and historic districts in Hawaii listed on the National Register of Historic Places. More than 340 listings appear on all but one of Hawaii's main islands ( Niihau being the exception) and the Northwestern Islands ...
* Timeline of Honolulu


References


Bibliography

* Beechert, Edward D. ''Working in Hawaii: A labor history'' (University of Hawaii Press, 1985). * Craig, Robert D. ''Historical dictionary of Honolulu and Hawaiʻi'' (Scarecrow Press, 1998). * * Fuchs, Lawrence H. ''Hawaii Pono: 'Hawaii the Excellent': An Ethnic and Political History.'' (1961). * Haley, James L. ''Captive Paradise: A History of Hawaii'' (St. Martin's Press, 2014). * Kuykendall, Ralph Simpson, and Arthur Grove Day. ''Hawaii: a history, from Polynesian kingdom to American state'' (Prentice Hall, 1961) als
online 1926 edition
* La Croix, Sumner. '' Hawai’i: Eight Hundred Years of Political and Economic Change'' (U of Chicago Press, 2019) 309 pp.
EH.net online review by Lee J. Alston
* La Croix, Sumner. "Economic history of Hawai‘i." ''Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Economics and Finance'' (2021) * Tabrah, Ruth M. ''Hawaii: a history'' (WW Norton & Company, 1984). * Wyndette, Olive. ''Islands of Destiny: A History of Hawaii'' (1968).


Specialty studies

* Aquino, Belinda
''The Filipino Century in Hawaii: Out of the Crucible''
(2006). * Brown, DeSoto and Anne Ellett. ''Hawaii goes to war: life in Hawaii from Pearl Harbor to peace'' (1989). * Chapin, Helen. ''Shaping history: The role of newspapers in Hawai'i'' (University of Hawaii Press, 1996). * Cochran, Thomas C. and Ray Ginger. "The American-Hawaiian Steamship Company, 1899–1919," ''Business History Review'' (1954). 28#4, pp. 342–365. * Forbes, David W. ''Encounters with paradise: views of Hawaii and its people, 1778–1941'' (Honolulu Academy of Arts, 1992). * Greenlee, John Wyatt. "Eight Islands on Four Maps: The Cartographic Renegotiation of Hawai'i, 1876-1959." ''Cartographica'' 50, 3 (2015), 119–140
online
* MacLennan, Carol A. ''Sovereign Sugar, Industry and Environment in Hawaii'' (2014). * Mak, James. "Creating 'Paradise of the Pacific': How Tourism Began in Hawaii." (No. 2015-1. 2015
online
82pp * Melendy, Howard Brett, and Rhoda E.A. Hackler. ''Hawaii, America's Sugar Territory, 1898–1959'' (
Lewiston, New York Lewiston is a town in Niagara County, New York, United States. The population was 15,944 at the 2020 census. The town and its contained village are named after Morgan Lewis, a governor of New York. The Town of Lewiston is on the western bord ...
:
Edwin Mellen Press The Edwin Mellen Press or Mellen Press is an international independent company and academic publishing house with editorial offices in Lewiston, New York, and Lampeter, Wales. It was founded, in 1972, by the religious studies scholar Profess ...
, 1999). * Melendy, Howard Brett. ''Walter Francis Dillingham, 1875–1963: Hawaiian Entrepreneur and Statesman'' (
Lewiston, New York Lewiston is a town in Niagara County, New York, United States. The population was 15,944 at the 2020 census. The town and its contained village are named after Morgan Lewis, a governor of New York. The Town of Lewiston is on the western bord ...
:
Edwin Mellen Press The Edwin Mellen Press or Mellen Press is an international independent company and academic publishing house with editorial offices in Lewiston, New York, and Lampeter, Wales. It was founded, in 1972, by the religious studies scholar Profess ...
, 1996). * Morgan, William Michael. "The Anti-Japanese Origins of the Hawaiian Annexation Treaty Of 1897" ''Diplomatic History''. (1982) 6#1 pp 23-44. ** Morgan, William Michael. ''Pacific Gibraltar: U.S.-Japanese Rivalry Over the Annexation of Hawaii, 1885-1898'' (Naval Institute Press, 2011). Se
online review by Kenneth R. Conklin, PhD
* * Rohrer, Judy. ''Haoles in Hawai'i'' (2010), 124ff.; scholarly survey * Russ, William Adam. ''The Hawaiian Revolution (1893-94)'' (1992) * Russ, William Adam. ''The Hawaiian Republic (1894–98) and its struggle to win annexation'' (Susquehanna U Press, 1992). * Schmitt, Robert C. ''Historical Statistics of Hawaii'' (University Press of Hawaii, 1977). * Schmitt, Robert C. "Religious statistics of Hawaii, 1825-1972." '' Hawaiian Journal of History'' (1973), Vol. 7, pp 41-47. * Schmitt, Robert C. ''Demographic Statistics of Hawaii." Demographic Statistics of Hawaii'' (University of Hawaii Press, 2021). * Siler, Julia Flynn. ''Lost Kingdom: Hawaii's Last Queen, the Sugar Kings and America's First Imperial Adventure'' (2012). * Sumida, Stephen H. ''And the View from the Shore: Literary Traditions of Hawai'i'' (University of Washington Press, 2015). * Teodoro, Luis V., ed. ''Out of this struggle: The Filipinos in Hawaii'' (U. University of Hawaii Press, 2019). * Tregaskis, Richard. ''The warrior king: Hawaii's Kamehameha the Great'' (1973). * * Wilson, Rob. "Exporting Christian Transcendentalism, Importing Hawaiian Sugar: The Trans-Americanization of Hawai'i." ''American Literature'' 72#.3 (2000): 521–552


External links


Audio of Dwight D. Eisenhower Hawaii Statehood Proclamation Speech






by Chris Cook in ''The Islander Magazine''

in ''The Islander Magazine''
Today in Hawai`i History
* * * {{Authority control