Taittiriya Samhita
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The ''Taittirīya Shakha'' (
Sanskrit Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...
, loosely meaning 'Branch or School of the sage Tittiri'), is a ''
shakha A shakha (Sanskrit ', "branch" or "limb") is a Hindu theological school that specializes in learning certain Vedic texts, or else the traditional texts followed by such a school.V. S. Apte. A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary, p. 913, left column.Moni ...
'' (i.e. 'branch', 'school', or rescension) of the Krishna (black) Yajurveda. Most prevalent in
South India South India, also known as Dakshina Bharata or Peninsular India, consists of the peninsular southern part of India. It encompasses the Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Telangana, as well as the union territ ...
, it consists of the ''Taittirīya Samhita'' ('TS'), ''Taittirīya Brahmana'' ('TB'), ''Taittirīya
Aranyaka The Aranyakas (; sa, आरण्यक; IAST: ' ) are the part of the ancient Indian Vedas concerned with the meaning of ritual sacrifice. They typically represent the later sections of the Vedas, and are one of many layers of the Vedic texts ...
'' ('TA'), and ''Taittirīya Pratisakhya'' ('TP').


Nomenclature

The 'Taittiriya Shakha' can be loosely translated as 'Branch or School of (the sage) Tittri' or 'Branch or School of Taittiriya' or 'School of the pupils of Tittiri'. *'Taittiriya' is derived from the name of the sage Taittiri (or Tittiri). *'Shakha' means 'branch' or 'school'.


Origin


Monier-Williams

According to Monier-Williams ''Sanskrit-English Dictionary'', Taittiri was a pupil of Yaska (estimated 4th-5th century BCE). According to the Vishnu Purana, Yaska was in turn a pupil of Vaiśampáyana, (estimated 6th century BCE). Taittiri is also stated in the
Mahabharata The ''Mahābhārata'' ( ; sa, महाभारतम्, ', ) is one of the two major Sanskrit literature, Sanskrit Indian epic poetry, epics of ancient India in Hinduism, the other being the ''Ramayana, Rāmāyaṇa''. It narrates the s ...
to have attended 'the Yaga
Vedic_ _upright=1.2,_The_Vedas_are_ancient_Sanskrit_texts_of_Hinduism._Above:_A_page_from_the_''_Atharvaveda''. The_Vedas_(,_,_)_are_a_large_body_of_religious_texts_originating_in_ancient_India._Composed_in_Vedic_Sanskrit,_the_texts_constitute_the__...
_Yajna.html" "title="Vedas.html" "title="nowiki/>Vedas">Vedic upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the '' Atharvaveda''. The Vedas (, , ) are a large body of religious texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the ...
Yajna">ritual sacrifice Sacrifice is the offering of material possessions or the lives of animals or humans to a deity as an act of propitiation or worship. Evidence of ritual animal sacrifice has been seen at least since ancient Hebrews and Greeks, and possibly exis ...
] conducted by Uparichara Vasu, Uparicaravasu'.


Vishnu Purana

'Tittiri' also means 'partridge'. This meaning is worked into the account of the stated origin of the School of Tittri in the
Vishnu Purana The Vishnu Purana ( IAST:, sa, विष्णुपुराण) is one of the eighteen Mahapuranas, a genre of ancient and medieval texts of Hinduism. It is an important Pancharatra text in the Vaishnavism literature corpus. The manusc ...
(Book 3, Chapter 5). Following a division between
Brahmin Brahmin (; sa, ब्राह्मण, brāhmaṇa) is a varna as well as a caste within Hindu society. The Brahmins are designated as the priestly class as they serve as priests (purohit, pandit, or pujari) and religious teachers (gur ...
s at Mount Meru - including Vaiśampáyana (whose pupil, Tittiri, is attributed to the Krishna (black) Yajurveda) and
Yajnavalkya Yajnavalkya or Yagyavalkya ( sa, याज्ञवल्क्य, ) is a Hindu Vedic sage figuring in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (c. 700 BCE)., Quote: "Yajnavalkya, a Vedic sage, taught..."Ben-Ami Scharfstein (1998), ''A comparative histor ...
(attributed to the Shukla (White) Yajurveda) - 'The other scholars of Vaiśampáyana, transforming themselves to partridges (Tittiri), picked up the texts which he ájnawalkyahad disgorged, and which from that circumstance were called Taittiríya'. This indicates both Yaska and Taittiri were pupils of Vaiśampáyana. The translator, H.H. Wilson, states in his commentary to this chapter that 'the term Taittiríya is more rationally accounted for in the Anukramańí or index of the black Yajush rishna YajurVeda It is there said that Vaiśampáyana taught it to Yaska, who taught it to Tittiri, who also became a teacher; whence the term Taittiríya, for a grammatical rule explains it to mean, 'The Taittiríyas are those who read what was said or repeated by Tittiri'.'


Nirukta

Yaska, attributed as the teacher of Taittiri, is also attributed as the author of the
Nirukta ''Nirukta'' ( sa, निरुक्त, , "explained, interpreted") is one of the six ancient Vedangas, or ancillary science connected with the Vedas – the scriptures of Hinduism.James Lochtefeld (2002), "Nirukta" in The Illustrated Encyclope ...
, a study of
etymology Etymology ()The New Oxford Dictionary of English (1998) – p. 633 "Etymology /ˌɛtɪˈmɒlədʒi/ the study of the class in words and the way their meanings have changed throughout time". is the study of the history of the Phonological chan ...
concerned with correct interpretation of
Sanskrit Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had diffused there from the northwest in the late ...
words in the
Vedas upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the '' Atharvaveda''. The Vedas (, , ) are a large body of religious texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute th ...
. This is significant as the Nirukta references and quotes extensively from the Taittiriya texts (e.g. as listed in Appendix 1 of the Nirukta).


Overview

The Taittiriya school of the Krishna (black) Yajurveda produced several types of texts constituting Sruti
Vedic upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the '' Atharvaveda''. The Vedas (, , ) are a large body of religious texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the ...
literature (of the YajurVeda). These are the: * Taittiriya Samhita: Seven books of hymns and mantras. Includes Brahmana and Anukramani (index) sections. One of four total Samhitas of the Krishna YajurVeda. *
Taittiriya Brahmana The ''Taittirīya Shakha'' (Sanskrit, loosely meaning 'Branch or School of the sage Tittiri'), is a ''shakha'' (i.e. 'branch', 'school', or rescension) of the Krishna (black) Yajurveda. Most prevalent in South India, it consists of the ''Taitti ...
: Three books of hymns, mantras, legends,
astronomy Astronomy () is a natural science that studies celestial objects and phenomena. It uses mathematics, physics, and chemistry in order to explain their origin and evolution. Objects of interest include planets, moons, stars, nebulae, g ...
, and - typical of Brahmana texts - instructions on the performance of sacrificial rites. * Taittiriya
Aranyaka The Aranyakas (; sa, आरण्यक; IAST: ' ) are the part of the ancient Indian Vedas concerned with the meaning of ritual sacrifice. They typically represent the later sections of the Vedas, and are one of many layers of the Vedic texts ...
: Ten books of hymns, mantras, and - typical of
Aranyaka The Aranyakas (; sa, आरण्यक; IAST: ' ) are the part of the ancient Indian Vedas concerned with the meaning of ritual sacrifice. They typically represent the later sections of the Vedas, and are one of many layers of the Vedic texts ...
texts -
Vedic upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the '' Atharvaveda''. The Vedas (, , ) are a large body of religious texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the ...
theology Theology is the systematic study of the nature of the divine and, more broadly, of religious belief. It is taught as an academic discipline, typically in universities and seminaries. It occupies itself with the unique content of analyzing the ...
constituting two
Upanishads The Upanishads (; sa, उपनिषद् ) are late Vedic Sanskrit texts that supplied the basis of later Hindu philosophy.Wendy Doniger (1990), ''Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism'', 1st Edition, University of Chicago Press, , ...
. * Taittiriya Pratisakhya: One book concerned with
phonetics Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that studies how humans produce and perceive sounds, or in the case of sign languages, the equivalent aspects of sign. Linguists who specialize in studying the physical properties of speech are phoneticians. ...
, i.e. the correct pronunciation of words.


Notable members

According to B.R. Modak, the scholar Sayana (died 1387 CE), notable for his commentaries on Vedic literature including the Taittirīya texts, was a member of the Taittiriya Shakha. According to G.R. Garg,
Apastamba ''Āpastamba Dharmasūtra'' (Sanskrit: आपस्तम्ब धर्मसूत्र) is a Sanskrit text and one of the oldest Dharma-related texts of Hinduism that have survived into the modern age from the 1st-millennium BCE. It is one o ...
, notable for his Shrautasutras, was also a member.


Commentaries

The 'Śrauta Sútras' (or Shrautasutras) of
Apastamba ''Āpastamba Dharmasūtra'' (Sanskrit: आपस्तम्ब धर्मसूत्र) is a Sanskrit text and one of the oldest Dharma-related texts of Hinduism that have survived into the modern age from the 1st-millennium BCE. It is one o ...
(450–350 BCE), Bodhayana (500–200 BCE), and Vaikhanasa.(300–100 BCE) are theological texts concerned with procedures and ceremonies of Vedic
ritual A ritual is a sequence of activities involving gestures, words, actions, or objects, performed according to a set sequence. Rituals may be prescribed by the traditions of a community, including a religious community. Rituals are characterized ...
practice. All are attached to the Taittiriya Samhita. There are other commentaries written by Sanskrit scholars and philosophers on the works of the Taittiriya Shakha. Most notably, according to B.R. Modak, Sayana wrote commentaries on the Taittirīya texts (and others). According to N. Sharva, the Taittirīya Brāhmaṇa was also commented upon by Bhava Swāmī (circa 700 CE or earlier); Kauśika Bhaṭṭa Bhāskara Miśra (preceding and referred to by Sayana in the
Nirukta ''Nirukta'' ( sa, निरुक्त, , "explained, interpreted") is one of the six ancient Vedangas, or ancillary science connected with the Vedas – the scriptures of Hinduism.James Lochtefeld (2002), "Nirukta" in The Illustrated Encyclope ...
and by Devarāja Yajvā in the
Nighantu ( sa, निघण्टु, ) is a Sanskrit term for a traditional collection of words, grouped into thematic categories, often with brief annotations. Such collections share characteristics with glossaries and thesauri, but are not true lexicon ...
); and Rāmānḍara / Rāmāgnichitta.


Taittiriya Samhita

R. Dalal states that 'The Yajur Veda consists of passages in verse and prose, arranged for the performance of yajnas (sacrifices)... The two main versions of the Yajur are known as the Shukla (or "white") Yajur Veda and the Krishna (or 'Black') Yajur Veda... of the black Yajur Veda, five
shakhas A shakha (Sanskrit ', "branch" or "limb") is a Hindu theological school that specializes in learning certain Vedic texts, or else the traditional texts followed by such a school.V. S. Apte. A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary, p. 913, left column.Moni ...
are known: the Taittiriya (Apastamba), Kapishthala (Hiranyakesi), Katha, Kathaka (school of the Kaṭhas), and Maitrayani (Kalapa), with four closely related recensions, known as the Kathaka Samhita, the Kapishthala-Katha Samhita, Maitrayani Samhita, and the Taittiriya Samhita'.


Structure and Content

The Taittiriya Samhita ('TS') consists of seven kandas (or 'books') of hymns, mantras, prayers, and three Anukramanis (indexes). In translations such as that by A.B. Keith, this Samhita is presented as the Krishna (black) Yajurveda. M. Winternitz adds that the Samhita also includes Brahmana passages (i.e. instructions and explanations of
sacrificial Sacrifice is the offering of material possessions or the lives of animals or humans to a deity as an act of propitiation or worship. Evidence of ritual animal sacrifice has been seen at least since ancient Hebrews and Greeks, and possibly ex ...
ceremonies). The chapters (''prapāṭhakas'') for each of the books (''kandas'') of the Taittiriya Samhita are as follows: * Kanda 1 ** ''Prapāṭhaka'' 1: The new and full moon sacrifices ** ''Prapāṭhaka'' 2: The
Soma Soma may refer to: Businesses and brands * SOMA (architects), a New York–based firm of architects * Soma (company), a company that designs eco-friendly water filtration systems * SOMA Fabrications, a builder of bicycle frames and other bicycle ...
sacrifice ** ''Prapāṭhaka'' 3: The Victim for
Agni Agni (English: , sa, अग्नि, translit=Agni) is a Sanskrit word meaning fire and connotes the Vedic fire deity of Hinduism. He is also the guardian deity of the southeast direction and is typically found in southeast corners of Hindu ...
and
Soma Soma may refer to: Businesses and brands * SOMA (architects), a New York–based firm of architects * Soma (company), a company that designs eco-friendly water filtration systems * SOMA Fabrications, a builder of bicycle frames and other bicycle ...
** ''Prapāṭhaka'' 4: The Soma cups ** ''Prapāṭhaka'' 5: The Rekindling of the Fire ** ''Prapāṭhakas'' 6-7: The sacrificer's part in the new and full moon sacrifices ** ''Prapāṭhaka'' 8: The Rajasuya * Kanda 2 **''Prapāṭhaka'' 1: The special animal sacrifices ** ''Prapāṭhakas'' 2-4: The special sacrifices ** ''Prapāṭhakas'' 5-6: The new and full moon sacrifices * Kanda 3 ** ''Prapāṭhakas'' 1-3: The supplement to the Soma sacrifice ** ''Prapāṭhaka'' 4: The optional and occasional offerings ** ''Prapāṭhaka'' 5: Miscellaneous supplements * Kanda 4 ** ''Prapāṭhaka'' 1: The lacing of the fire in the fire-pan. ** ''Prapāṭhaka'' 2: The reparation of the ground for the fire ** ''Prapāṭhaka'' 3: The five layers of bricks ** ''Prapāṭhaka'' 4: The fifth layer of bricks ** ''Prapāṭhaka'' 5: The offerings to
Rudra Rudra (; sa, रुद्र) is a Rigvedic deity associated with Shiva, the wind or storms, Vayu, medicine, and the hunt. One translation of the name is 'the roarer'. In the Rigveda, Rudra is praised as the 'mightiest of the mighty'. Ru ...
** ''Prapāṭhaka'' 6: The preparation of the fire ** ''Prapāṭhaka'' 7: The piling of the fire (continued) * Kanda 5 ** ''Prapāṭhaka'' 1: The placing of the fire in the fire-pan ** ''Prapāṭhaka'' 2: The preparation of the ground for the fire ** ''Prapāṭhaka'' 3: The second and later layers of bricks ** ''Prapāṭhakas'' 4-7: The piling of the fire altar (continued) * Kanda 6 ** ''Prapāṭhakas'' 1-5: The exposition of the Soma sacrifice. ** ''Prapāṭhaka'' 6: Exposition of the Daksina and other offerings * Kanda 7 ** ''Prapāṭhaka'' 1: The Ekaha and Ahina Sacrifices ** ''Prapāṭhaka'' 2: The Ahina sacrifices (continued) ** ''Prapāṭhakas'' 3-4: The Sattras. ** ''Prapāṭhaka'' 5: The Gavam Ayana


Nakshatras

D.M. Harness states that 'The
Vedic upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the '' Atharvaveda''. The Vedas (, , ) are a large body of religious texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the ...
Nakshatras tarsarose from a spiritual perception of the
cosmos The cosmos (, ) is another name for the Universe. Using the word ''cosmos'' implies viewing the universe as a complex and orderly system or entity. The cosmos, and understandings of the reasons for its existence and significance, are studied in ...
. Nakshatras are the mansions of the Gods or cosmic powers and of the
Rishis ''Rishi'' () is a term for an accomplished and enlightened person. They find mentions in various Vedic texts. Rishis are believed to have composed hymns of the Vedas. The Post-Vedic tradition of Hinduism regards the rishis as "great yogis" or ...
or sages. They can also project negative or anti-divine forces, just as certain planets like Saturn have well known malefic effects. The term Nakshatra refers to a means (''tra'') of worship (''naksha'') or approach... The Nakshatras dispense the fruits of
karma Karma (; sa, कर्म}, ; pi, kamma, italic=yes) in Sanskrit means an action, work, or deed, and its effect or consequences. In Indian religions, the term more specifically refers to a principle of cause and effect, often descriptivel ...
... For this reason
Vedic rituals The historical Vedic religion (also known as Vedicism, Vedism or ancient Hinduism and subsequently Brahmanism (also spelled as Brahminism)), constituted the religious ideas and practices among some Indo-Aryan peoples of northwest Indian Subco ...
and
meditations ''Meditations'' () is a series of personal writings by Marcus Aurelius, Roman Emperor from AD 161 to 180, recording his private notes to himself and ideas on Stoic philosophy. Marcus Aurelius wrote the 12 books of the ''Meditations'' in Koine ...
to the present day follow the timing of the Nakshatras...
hich Ij ( fa, ايج, also Romanized as Īj; also known as Hich and Īch) is a village in Golabar Rural District, in the Central District of Ijrud County, Zanjan Province, Iran Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and also ...
are of prime mportancein muhurta or electional
astrology Astrology is a range of divinatory practices, recognized as pseudoscientific since the 18th century, that claim to discern information about human affairs and terrestrial events by studying the apparent positions of celestial objects. Di ...
for determining favorable times for actions, particularly sacramental or sacred actions like marriage'. Reference to the Nakṣhatra Sūktam (star positions relating to new and full moon ceremonies), occurs in ''kāṇḍa'' (book) 3, ''prapāṭhaka'' (chapter) 5, ''anuvākaḥ'' (section) 1 (3.5.1).


Shaivism


Shri Rudram and Namah Shivaya homages to Shiva

The
Shri Rudram Chamakam ''Shri Rudram'' ( sa, श्रीरुद्रम्, śrī-rudram), is a Vedic mantra or chant in homage to Rudra (an epithet of Shiva) taken from the ''Krishna Yajurveda's'' ''Taittiriya Samhita'' (TS 4.5, 4.7). It comprises two parts, ...
and Namah Shivaya, homages to
Rudra Rudra (; sa, रुद्र) is a Rigvedic deity associated with Shiva, the wind or storms, Vayu, medicine, and the hunt. One translation of the name is 'the roarer'. In the Rigveda, Rudra is praised as the 'mightiest of the mighty'. Ru ...
/
Shiva Shiva (; sa, शिव, lit=The Auspicious One, Śiva ), also known as Mahadeva (; ɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐ, or Hara, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the Supreme Being in Shaivism, one of the major traditions within Hindu ...
(the supreme deity in
Shaivism Shaivism (; sa, शैवसम्प्रदायः, Śaivasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu traditions, which worships Shiva as the Supreme Being. One of the largest Hindu denominations, it incorporates many sub-traditions rangi ...
), occur in ''kāṇḍa'' (book) 5, ''prapāṭhakas'' (chapters) 5 and 7 (5.5 and 5.7).


Vaishnavism


The Varaha Avatara of Vishnu

Varaha, the boar
avatar Avatar (, ; ), is a concept within Hinduism that in Sanskrit literally means "descent". It signifies the material appearance or incarnation of a powerful deity, goddess or spirit on Earth. The relative verb to "alight, to make one's appeara ...
of
Vishnu Vishnu ( ; , ), also known as Narayana and Hari, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme being within Vaishnavism, one of the major traditions within contemporary Hinduism. Vishnu is known as "The Preserver" withi ...
(listed in the Dashavatara, or ten primary incarnation of Vishnu) is primarily associated with the
Puranic Purana (; sa, , '; literally meaning "ancient, old"Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of Literature (1995 Edition), Article on Puranas, , page 915) is a vast genre of Indian literature about a wide range of topics, particularly about legends an ...
legend of lifting the Earth out of the
cosmic ocean A cosmic ocean or celestial river is a mythological motif found in the mythology of many cultures and civilizations, representing the world or cosmos as enveloped by primordial waters. In ancient creation texts, the primordial waters are often ...
. A.A. Macdonell and R. Janmajit both state that the origin and development of the
boar The wild boar (''Sus scrofa''), also known as the wild swine, common wild pig, Eurasian wild pig, or simply wild pig, is a suid native to much of Eurasia and North Africa, and has been introduced to the Americas and Oceania. The species is ...
avatar is found in the Taittiriya Samhita, albeit initially as a form of Prajapati: Another extract attributed to the early development of the Varaha avatar by Macdonell is:


Taittiriya Brahmana

The Taittirīya Brāhmaņa ('TB') is considered by academics to be an appendix or extension of the Taittirīya Samhita. The first two books ( ''ashṭakas'') largely consist of hymns and
mantras A mantra (Pali: ''manta'') or mantram (मन्त्रम्) is a sacred utterance, a numinous sound, a syllable, word or phonemes, or group of words in Sanskrit, Pali and other languages believed by practitioners to have religious, ma ...
to the
Vedic upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the '' Atharvaveda''. The Vedas (, , ) are a large body of religious texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the ...
-era Devas, as well as
mythology Myth is a folklore genre consisting of narratives that play a fundamental role in a society, such as foundational tales or origin myths. Since "myth" is widely used to imply that a story is not objectively true, the identification of a narra ...
,
astronomy Astronomy () is a natural science that studies celestial objects and phenomena. It uses mathematics, physics, and chemistry in order to explain their origin and evolution. Objects of interest include planets, moons, stars, nebulae, g ...
, and
astrology Astrology is a range of divinatory practices, recognized as pseudoscientific since the 18th century, that claim to discern information about human affairs and terrestrial events by studying the apparent positions of celestial objects. Di ...
(i.e. the Nakshatras); the third book contains commentaries and instructions on
Vedic upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the '' Atharvaveda''. The Vedas (, , ) are a large body of religious texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the ...
sacrificial Sacrifice is the offering of material possessions or the lives of animals or humans to a deity as an act of propitiation or worship. Evidence of ritual animal sacrifice has been seen at least since ancient Hebrews and Greeks, and possibly ex ...
rites such as the
Purushamedha Purushamedha (or Naramedha) is a Śrauta ritual of human sacrifice. The ''Vajasaneyi Samhita-Sataphana Brahmana-Katyayana Srauta Sutra'' sequence of Shukla Yajur Veda texts contains the most details. Whether actual human sacrifice was taking place ...
, Kaukili-Sutramani, Ashvamedha, and
Agnicayana The Agnicayana ('; ) or Athirathram ( ml, അതിരാത്രം) is a category of advanced Śrauta rituals. After one has established the routine of the twice-daily routine of Agnihotra offerings and biweekly ''dara-purna-masa'' offerin ...
. Recorded around 300-400 BCE, it was prevalent in southern
India India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...
in areas such in
Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh (, abbr. AP) is a state in the south-eastern coastal region of India. It is the seventh-largest state by area covering an area of and tenth-most populous state with 49,386,799 inhabitants. It is bordered by Telangana to the ...
, south and east of Narmada (Gujarat), and areas on the banks of the
Godavari The Godavari (IAST: ''Godāvarī'' od̪aːʋəɾiː is India's second longest river after the Ganga river and drains into the third largest basin in India, covering about 10% of India's total geographical area. Its source is in Trimbakeshwa ...
river down to the sea. A.B Keith states that 'at a comparatively early period the formulae Samhitas_of_the_YajurVeda.html"_;"title="Samhita.html"_;"title=".e._mantras_from_the_Samhita">Samhitas_of_the_YajurVeda">Samhita.html"_;"title=".e._mantras_from_the_Samhita">Samhitas_of_the_YajurVedawere_accompanied_by_explanations,_called_
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_or_sacred_lore,_in_which_the_different_acts_of_the_ritual_were_given_ Brahmanas,_texts_pertaining_to_the_Brahmin.html"__"title="Brahmana.html"_;"title="Samhita">Samhitas_of_the_YajurVeda.html"_;"title="Samhita.html"_;"title=".e._mantras_from_the_Samhita">Samhitas_of_the_YajurVeda">Samhita.html"_;"title=".e._mantras_from_the_Samhita">Samhitas_of_the_YajurVedawere_accompanied_by_explanations,_called_Brahmana">Brahmanas,_texts_pertaining_to_the_Brahmin">Brahman_ In_Hinduism,_''Brahman''_(_sa,_ब्रह्मन्)_connotes_the_highest_universal_principle,_the__ultimate_reality_in_the_universe.P._T._Raju_(2006),_''Idealistic_Thought_of_India'',_Routledge,_,_page_426_and_Conclusion_chapter_part_X_...
_or_sacred_lore,_in_which_the_different_acts_of_the_ritual_were_given_Symbol">symbolical_interpretations,_the_words_of_the_texts_commented_on,_and_stories_told_to_illustrate_the_sacrificial_performance..._a_mass_of_old_material,_partly_formulae,_partly_Brahmana,_which_had_not_been_incorporated_in_the_Taittiriya_Samhita_was_collected_together_in_the_Taittiriya_Brahmana,_which_in_part_contains_matter_more_recent_than_the_Samhita,_but_in_part_has_matter_as_old_as,_at_any_rate,_the_later_portions_of_that_text'.


__Structure_and_Content_

Based_on_information_provided_by_Kashyap_and_R._Mitra,_the_chapters_(''prapāṭhakas'')_for_each_of_the_books_(''ashṭakas''_or_sometimes_referred_to_as_''kandas'')_are_as_follows: *_Ashṭaka_1:_Pārakshudra **''Prapāṭhaka''_1:_Explanation_for_the_establishment_of_Agni_ Agni_(English:__,__sa,_अग्नि,_translit=Agni)_is_a_Sanskrit_word_meaning_fire_and_connotes_the_Vedic_fire_deity_of_Hinduism._He_is_also_the__guardian_deity_of_the_southeast_direction_and_is_typically_found_in_southeast_corners_of_Hindu_...
**_''Prapāṭhaka''_2:_(_Devas,_chants,_Vishuvat,_Solstice.html" ;"title="Symbol.html" ;"title="rahmana">Brahmanas,_texts_pertaining_to_the_Brahmin.html" "title="Brahmana.html" ;"title="Samhita">Samhitas_of_the_YajurVeda.html" ;"title="Samhita.html" ;"title=".e. mantras from the Samhita">Samhitas of the YajurVeda">Samhita.html" ;"title=".e. mantras from the Samhita">Samhitas of the YajurVedawere accompanied by explanations, called Brahmana">Brahmanas, texts pertaining to the Brahmin">Brahman In Hinduism, ''Brahman'' ( sa, ब्रह्मन्) connotes the highest universal principle, the ultimate reality in the universe.P. T. Raju (2006), ''Idealistic Thought of India'', Routledge, , page 426 and Conclusion chapter part X ...
 or sacred lore, in which the different acts of the ritual were given Symbol">symbolical interpretations, the words of the texts commented on, and stories told to illustrate the sacrificial performance... a mass of old material, partly formulae, partly Brahmana, which had not been incorporated in the Taittiriya Samhita was collected together in the Taittiriya Brahmana, which in part contains matter more recent than the Samhita, but in part has matter as old as, at any rate, the later portions of that text'.


Structure and Content

Based on information provided by Kashyap and R. Mitra, the chapters (''prapāṭhakas'') for each of the books (''ashṭakas'' or sometimes referred to as ''kandas'') are as follows: * Ashṭaka 1: Pārakshudra **''Prapāṭhaka'' 1: Explanation for the establishment of
Agni Agni (English: , sa, अग्नि, translit=Agni) is a Sanskrit word meaning fire and connotes the Vedic fire deity of Hinduism. He is also the guardian deity of the southeast direction and is typically found in southeast corners of Hindu ...
** ''Prapāṭhaka'' 2: ( Devas, chants, Vishuvat, Solstice">Solstices, Mahavrata, and the bird-shaped altar) ** ''Prapāṭhaka'' 3: Vajapeya Yajna ** ''Prapāṭhaka'' 4: Explanation of
Soma Soma may refer to: Businesses and brands * SOMA (architects), a New York–based firm of architects * Soma (company), a company that designs eco-friendly water filtration systems * SOMA Fabrications, a builder of bicycle frames and other bicycle ...
offerings ** ''Prapāṭhaka'' 5: The powers of stars or nakshatras, rites and
RigVeda The ''Rigveda'' or ''Rig Veda'' ( ', from ' "praise" and ' "knowledge") is an ancient Indian collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns (''sūktas''). It is one of the four sacred canonical Hindu texts ('' śruti'') known as the Vedas. Only one ...
Mantras A mantra (Pali: ''manta'') or mantram (मन्त्रम्) is a sacred utterance, a numinous sound, a syllable, word or phonemes, or group of words in Sanskrit, Pali and other languages believed by practitioners to have religious, ma ...
** ''Prapāṭhaka'' 6: (Unknown) ** ''Prapāṭhaka'' 7: (Unknown) ** ''Prapāṭhaka'' 8: (Unknown) * Ashṭaka 2: Agnihotra **''Prapāṭhaka'' 1: The
Agnihotra Agnihotra (IAST: ''Agnihotra'', Devnagari: अग्निहोत्र) refers to the yajna of casting of ghee into the sacred fire as per strict rites, and may include twice-daily heated milk offering made by those in the Śrauta tradition. Th ...
Sacrifice ** ''Prapāṭhaka'' 2: Dasahotra Sacrifice ** ''Prapāṭhaka'' 3: Dasahotra Sacrifices concluded ** ''Prapāṭhaka'' 4: Mantras for Subsidiary Sacrifices or Upahomas ** ''Prapāṭhaka'' 5: Mantras for Subsidiary Sacrifices or Upahomas (Concluded) ** ''Prapāṭhaka'' 6: Kaukila Sautramani or the Sacrifice with Spirituous Liquor ** ''Prapāṭhaka'' 7: Ephemeral Sacrifices or Savas ** ''Prapāṭhaka'' 8: Sacrifices with especial prayers (Kamya) * Ashṭaka 3: (Various) ** ''Prapāṭhaka'' 1: Sacrifices to the Constellations - Nakshatra
Ishti An ishti in Hinduism is a series of oblations to different deities A deity or god is a supernatural being who is considered divine or sacred. The ''Oxford Dictionary of English'' defines deity as a god or goddess, or anything revered as divin ...
** ''Prapāṭhaka'' 2: Dars'a Ya'ga or Sacrifices meet on the wane of the Moon ** ''Prapāṭhaka'' 3: Paurnamasa Ishti or Ceremonies to be performed on the full moon ** ''Prapāṭhaka'' 4: On
Human sacrifices Human sacrifice is the act of killing one or more humans as part of a ritual, which is usually intended to please or appease gods, a human ruler, an authoritative/priestly figure or spirits of dead ancestors or as a retainer sacrifice, wherein ...
** ''Prapāṭhaka'' 5: Ishti Sacrifices ** ''Prapāṭhaka'' 6: Pa'Shuka Hotra ** ''Prapāṭhaka'' 7: Expiations for defects in the performance of ceremonies ** ''Prapāṭhaka'' 8: On the operations of the first day of the Asvamedha sacrifice ** ''Prapāṭhaka'' 9: On the operations of the second and third days of the horse sacrifice ** ''Prapāṭhaka'' 10: Sa'vitra-Chayana or collection of fire for the adoration of the sun ** ''Prapāṭhaka'' 11:
Nachiketa Nachiketa (), also rendered Nachiketas and Nachiketan, is a character in Hindu literature. He is the son of the sage Vājashravas, or Uddalaki, in some traditions. He is the child protagonist of an ancient Indian, dialogical narrative, about th ...
-Chayana, or collection of Nachiketa Fire ** ''Prapāṭhaka'' 12: Cha-tur-hotra and Vaisvasrij ceremonies


Taittiriya Aranyaka

The Taittiriya
Aranyaka The Aranyakas (; sa, आरण्यक; IAST: ' ) are the part of the ancient Indian Vedas concerned with the meaning of ritual sacrifice. They typically represent the later sections of the Vedas, and are one of many layers of the Vedic texts ...
('TA') is primarily a
theological Theology is the systematic study of the nature of the divine and, more broadly, of religious belief. It is taught as an academic discipline, typically in universities and seminaries. It occupies itself with the unique content of analyzing the s ...
text consisting of ten chapters (p''rapāṭhakas''). J. Dowson states that 'Aranyaka' means 'belonging to the forest' as this type of text is intended to 'expound the
mystical Mysticism is popularly known as becoming one with God or the Absolute, but may refer to any kind of ecstasy or altered state of consciousness which is given a religious or spiritual meaning. It may also refer to the attainment of insight in u ...
sense of the [
sacrificial Sacrifice is the offering of material possessions or the lives of animals or humans to a deity as an act of propitiation or worship. Evidence of ritual animal sacrifice has been seen at least since ancient Hebrews and Greeks, and possibly ex ...
] ceremonies, discuss the nature of God [etc.]. They are attached to the Brahmanas, and [are] intended for study in the forest by brahmanas who have retired from the distractions of the world'. As illustrated below, the Taittiriya Aranyaka contains a Brahmana text of its own, the Pravargya Brahmana, as well as two
Upanishads The Upanishads (; sa, उपनिषद् ) are late Vedic Sanskrit texts that supplied the basis of later Hindu philosophy.Wendy Doniger (1990), ''Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism'', 1st Edition, University of Chicago Press, , ...
, the
Taittiriya Upanishad The Taittirīya Upanishad (Devanagari: तैत्तिरीय उपनिषद्) is a Vedic era Sanskrit text, embedded as three chapters (''adhyāya'') of the Yajurveda. It is a ''mukhya'' (primary, principal) Upanishad, and likely co ...
(a Muktika or primary Upanishad) and the
Mahanarayana Upanishad The ''Mahanarayana Upanishad'' ( sa, महानारायण उपनिषद्, IAST: Mahānārāyaṇa Upaniṣad) is an ancient Sanskrit text, and is one of the minor Upanishads of Hinduism. The text is classified as a Vaishnava Upa ...
(a minor
Vaishnava Vaishnavism ( sa, वैष्णवसम्प्रदायः, Vaiṣṇavasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu denominations along with Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. It is also called Vishnuism since it considers Vishnu as the ...
Upanishad).


Structure and Content

R. Mitra states that the Taittiriya Aranyaka is 'by far the largest of the
Aranyakas The Aranyakas (; sa, आरण्यक; IAST: ' ) are the part of the ancient Indian Vedas concerned with the meaning of ritual sacrifice. They typically represent the later sections of the Vedas, and are one of many layers of the Vedic texts. ...
. It extends altogether to ten p''rapāṭhakas'' or 'Great Lessons', i.e. books or chapters, of which the last four are
Upanishads The Upanishads (; sa, उपनिषद् ) are late Vedic Sanskrit texts that supplied the basis of later Hindu philosophy.Wendy Doniger (1990), ''Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism'', 1st Edition, University of Chicago Press, , ...
, and the first six, are Aranyaka strictly so-called'. The 10 chapters (p''rapāṭhakas'') of the Taittiriya Aranyaka, including numbers of ''anuvakas'' (sections) for each, are as follows:


Vaishnavism

The
Mahanarayana Upanishad The ''Mahanarayana Upanishad'' ( sa, महानारायण उपनिषद्, IAST: Mahānārāyaṇa Upaniṣad) is an ancient Sanskrit text, and is one of the minor Upanishads of Hinduism. The text is classified as a Vaishnava Upa ...
is classified as a
Vaishnava Vaishnavism ( sa, वैष्णवसम्प्रदायः, Vaiṣṇavasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu denominations along with Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. It is also called Vishnuism since it considers Vishnu as the ...
Upanishad. In addition to this, the Taittiriya Aranyaka is also considered significant by academics in the development of the
avatars Avatar (, ; ), is a concept within Hinduism that in Sanskrit literally means "descent". It signifies the material appearance or incarnation of a powerful deity, goddess or spirit on Earth. The relative verb to "alight, to make one's appearanc ...
(or incarnations) and their associated legends of the RigVedic god
Vishnu Vishnu ( ; , ), also known as Narayana and Hari, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme being within Vaishnavism, one of the major traditions within contemporary Hinduism. Vishnu is known as "The Preserver" withi ...
, the supreme being in Vaishnavism.


The Varaha Avatara of Vishnu

A. Daniélou states that a hundred-armed black boar lifts the earth out of the waters in the Taittiriya Aranyaka (TA 10.1.8). J. Eggeling in note 451:1 to the
Shatapatha Brahmana The Shatapatha Brahmana ( sa, शतपथब्राह्मणम् , Śatapatha Brāhmaṇam, meaning 'Brāhmaṇa of one hundred paths', abbreviated to 'SB') is a commentary on the Śukla (white) Yajurveda. It is attributed to the Vedic ...
(relating to the Shukla or White Yajurveda) incorrectly states it was 'a black boar with a thousand arms'. The ''Journal Of The Indian Society Of Oriental Art'' (volume 13) states 'in the ‘Taittiriya Aranyaka’, the earth is said to have been raised by a black boar with a hundred arms (‘''varahena krsnena satabahuna uddhrta''’). It is an easily understandable step to the making of the boar an incarnation of
Visnu Vishnu ( ; , ), also known as Narayana and Hari, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme being within Vaishnavism, one of the major traditions within contemporary Hinduism. Vishnu is known as "The Preserver" within t ...
himself, a step which is finally taken in the
epics The Experimental Physics and Industrial Control System (EPICS) is a set of software tools and applications used to develop and implement distributed control systems to operate devices such as particle accelerators, telescopes and other large sci ...
and the Puranas'. This legend is also contained in the
Mahanarayana Upanishad The ''Mahanarayana Upanishad'' ( sa, महानारायण उपनिषद्, IAST: Mahānārāyaṇa Upaniṣad) is an ancient Sanskrit text, and is one of the minor Upanishads of Hinduism. The text is classified as a Vaishnava Upa ...
(p''rapāṭhaka'' 10 of the Taittiriya Aranyaka): As 'Krishna' also means 'black', the verse can also be interpreted as 'black boar' or 'raised up by the black boar', as stated by Daniélou and Eggeling. However, the translation given above clearly shows how
Krishna Krishna (; sa, कृष्ण ) is a major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as the eighth avatar of Vishnu and also as the Supreme god in his own right. He is the god of protection, compassion, tenderness, and love; and is one ...
is linked with
Varaha Varaha ( sa, वराह, , "boar") is an avatar of the Hindu god Vishnu, in the form of a boar. Varaha is generally listed as third in the Dashavatara, the ten principal avatars of Vishnu. Varaha is most commonly associated with the leg ...
.


The Kurma Avatara of Vishnu

N. Aiyangar states that the following verse from the Taittiriya Aranyaka (p''rapāṭhaka'' 1.23-25) 'is narrated in connection with the ritual called ''Arunaketuka-kayana'', in which the tortoise Kurma'.html"_;"title="Kurma.html"_;"title="Kurma">Kurma'">Kurma.html"_;"title="Kurma">Kurma'is_placed_below_the_''uttara-vedi''_[altar.html" ;"title="Kurma">Kurma'.html" ;"title="Kurma.html" ;"title="Kurma">Kurma'">Kurma.html" ;"title="Kurma">Kurma'is placed below the ''uttara-vedi'' [altar">Kurma">Kurma'.html" ;"title="Kurma.html" ;"title="Kurma">Kurma'">Kurma.html" ;"title="Kurma">Kurma'is placed below the ''uttara-vedi'' [altar In it Prajapati or his juice the Tortoise is called ''Arunaketu'' (one who had red rays)': The ''Vātaraśanāḥ'' Rishis (or Muni (Saint), Munis) created are also mentioned in
RigVeda The ''Rigveda'' or ''Rig Veda'' ( ', from ' "praise" and ' "knowledge") is an ancient Indian collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns (''sūktas''). It is one of the four sacred canonical Hindu texts ('' śruti'') known as the Vedas. Only one ...
10.136, where
Shiva Shiva (; sa, शिव, lit=The Auspicious One, Śiva ), also known as Mahadeva (; ɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐ, or Hara, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the Supreme Being in Shaivism, one of the major traditions within Hindu ...
drank water/poison, linking to the legend of
Kurma Kurma ( sa, कूर्म; , 'Turtle', 'Tortoise'), is the second avatar of the Hindu preserver deity, Vishnu. Originating in Vedic literature such as the Yajurveda as being synonymous with the Saptarishi called Kashyapa, Kurma is most comm ...
and the churning of the
Ocean of Milk In Hindu cosmology, the Ocean of Milk (',', ''Malayalam: Pālāḻi'') is the fifth from the centre of the seven oceans. It surrounds the continent known as Krauncha. According to Hindu scriptures, the devas and asuras worked together for a mil ...
, referred to as the
Samudra manthan The Samudra Manthana ( sa, समुद्रमन्थन; ) is a major episode in Hinduism that is elaborated in the Vishnu Purana, a major text of Hinduism. The Samudra Manthana explains the origin of the elixir of eternal life, amrita. Nom ...
. Prajapati then encounters a tortoise (Kurma/Arunaketu) that existed even before he, the creator of the universe, came into being.


Taittiriya Pratisakhya

The Taittiriya Pratisakhya ('TP') is concerned with
phonetics Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that studies how humans produce and perceive sounds, or in the case of sign languages, the equivalent aspects of sign. Linguists who specialize in studying the physical properties of speech are phoneticians. ...
, i.e. the correct pronunciation of words.


Structure and Content

The 24 chapters of the Taittiriya Pratisakhya are as follows: # List of sounds # Origin of sounds # Shortening of
vowels A vowel is a syllabic speech sound pronounced without any stricture in the vocal tract. Vowels are one of the two principal classes of speech sounds, the other being the consonant. Vowels vary in quality, in loudness and also in quantity (len ...
# Pragraha or uncombinable words # Sanhita or combination of words # Conversions of ''s'' and visarjaniya into ''sh''. # Conversion of ''n'' into ''ṇ'' # Changes of
unaspirated In linguistics, a tenuis consonant ( or ) is an obstruent that is voiceless, unaspirated and unglottalized. In other words, it has the "plain" phonation of with a voice onset time close to zero (a zero-VOT consonant), as Spanish ''p, t, ...
surds # Changes of ''h, ah, áh, n, ṉ, án, in'', etc. #
Coalescence Coalescence may refer to: * Coalescence (chemistry), the process by which two or more separate masses of miscible substances seem to "pull" each other together should they make the slightest contact * Coalescence (computer science), the merging of ...
of vowels # Elision of vowels # Elision of vowels # Elision of ''m'' # Duplication #
Nasalization In phonetics, nasalization (or nasalisation) is the production of a sound while the velum is lowered, so that some air escapes through the nose during the production of the sound by the mouth. An archetypal nasal sound is . In the Internation ...
# the use of ''n'' # Various opinions about nasality # Opinions about the aspiration of Om # Emphasis and shaking # Different kinds of circumflex letters # Division of
consonants In articulatory phonetics, a consonant is a speech sound that is articulated with complete or partial closure of the vocal tract. Examples are and pronounced with the lips; and pronounced with the front of the tongue; and pronounced wit ...
in syllabication # Formation of articulate sounds, tones, pitch, long and short syllables, etc. # Articulation # Various kinds of texts, and qualifications of
Vedic upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the '' Atharvaveda''. The Vedas (, , ) are a large body of religious texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute the ...
teachers and readers


Manuscripts and translations


Supplemental

*Ápastamba's Śrauta Sútra (Sanskrit) edited by D. Garbe (1882): Prasnas 1-7 and Prasnas 8-15


References

{{Reflist Vedas