Chinese philosophy Chinese philosophy originates in the Spring and Autumn period () and Warring States period (), during a period known as the " Hundred Schools of Thought", which was characterized by significant intellectual and cultural develop ...

, ''Taiji'' or ''Tai chi'' () is a cosmological term for the "Supreme Ultimate" state of the world and affairs - the interaction of matter and space, the relation of the body and mind. While Wuji is undifferentiated, timeless, absolute, infinite potential -- Taiji is differentiated, dualistic, and relative.

Yin and Yang Yin and yang ( and ) is a Chinese philosophical concept that describes opposite but interconnected forces. In Chinese cosmology, the universe creates itself out of a primary chaos of material energy, organized into the cycles of yin and ya ...

originate from Wuji to become Taiji. Compared with '' Wuji'' (, meaning 'without limit'), Taiji describes movement and change wherein limits do arise. Wuji is often translated "no pole" (no polarity, no opposite). Taiji is often translated "polar", with polarity, revealing opposing features as in hot/cold, up/down, dry/wet, day/night. The term ''Taiji'' and its other spelling ''T'ai chi'' (using

Wade–Giles Wade–Giles () is a romanization system for Mandarin Chinese. It developed from a system produced by Thomas Francis Wade, during the mid-19th century, and was given completed form with Herbert A. Giles's '' Chinese–English Dictionary'' o ...

as opposed to pinyin) are most commonly used in the West to refer to ''Taijiquan'' (or '' T'ai chi ch'uan'', ), an internal martial art, Chinese meditation system and health practice. This article, however, refers only to the use of the term in

and in Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism.

Etymology

''Taiji'' () is a compound of ''tai'' "great; grand; supreme; extreme; very; too" (a superlative variant of ''da'' "big; large; great; very") and ''ji'' "pole; roof ridge; highest/utmost point; extreme; earth's pole; reach the end; attain; exhaust". In analogy with the figurative meanings of English ''pole'', Chinese ''ji'' "ridgepole" can mean " geographical pole; direction" (e.g., ''siji'' "four corners of the earth; world's end"), " magnetic pole" (''Beiji'' "North Pole" or ''yinji'' "negative pole; cathode"), or " celestial pole" (''baji'' "farthest points of the universe; remotest place"). Combining the two words, means "the source, the beginning of the world". Common English translations of the cosmological ''Taiji'' are the "Supreme Ultimate" (Le Blanc 1985, Zhang and Ryden 2002) or "Great Ultimate" (Chen 1989, Robinet 2008); but other versions are the "Supreme Pole" (Needham and Ronan 1978), "Great Absolute", or "Supreme Polarity" (Adler 1999).

In Chinese texts

''Taiji'' references are found in Chinese classic texts associated with many schools of

. Zhang and Ryden explain the ontological necessity of ''Taiji''.

Any philosophy that asserts two elements such as the '' yin-yang'' of Chinese philosophy will also look for a term to reconcile the two, to ensure that both belong to the same sphere of discourse. The term 'supreme ultimate' performs this role in the philosophy of the ''Book of Changes''. In the Song dynasty it became a metaphysical term on a par with the Way. (2002:179)

''Zhuangzi''

The Daoist classic '' Zhuangzi'' introduced the ''Taiji'' concept. One of the (ca. 3rd century BCE) "Inner Chapters" contrasts ''Taiji'' "great ultimate" (tr. "

zenith The zenith (, ) is an imaginary point directly "above" a particular location, on the celestial sphere. "Above" means in the vertical direction ( plumb line) opposite to the gravity direction at that location ( nadir). The zenith is the "high ...

") and ''Liuji'' "six ultimates; six cardinal directions" (tr. " nadir").

The Way has attributes and evidence, but it has no action and no form. It may be transmitted but cannot be received. It may be apprehended but cannot be seen. From the root, from the stock, before there was heaven or earth, for all eternity truly has it existed. It inspirits demons and gods, gives birth to heaven and earth. It lies above the zenith but is not high; it lies beneath the nadir but is not deep. It is prior to heaven and earth, but is not ancient; it is senior to high antiquity, but it is not old. (tr. Mair 1994:55)

''Huainanzi''

The (2nd century BCE) confucianist and daoist '' Huainanzi'' mentions a '' Zhenren'' "true person; perfected person" and the ''Taiji'' "Supreme Ultimate" that transcends categories like

yin and yang Yin and yang ( and ) is a Chinese philosophical concept that describes opposite but interconnected forces. In Chinese cosmology, the universe creates itself out of a primary chaos of material energy, organized into the cycles of yin and ya ...

, exemplified with the ''yinyang'' '' fusui'' and '' fangzhu'' mirrors.

The ''fu-sui'' (burning mirror) gathers fire energy from the sun; the ''fang-chu'' (moon mirror) gathers dew from the moon. What are ontainedbetween Heaven and Earth, even an expert calculator cannot compute their number. Thus, though the hand can handle and examine extremely small things, it cannot lay hold of the brightness f the sun and moon Were it within the grasp of one's hand (within one's power) to gather hings withinone category from the Supreme Ultimate (''t'ai-chi'' ) above, one could immediately produce both fire and water. This is because ''Yin'' and ''Yang'' share a common ''ch'i'' and move each other. (tr. Le Blanc 1985:120-1)

''I Ching''

''Taiji'' also appears in the Xìcí "Appended Judgments" commentary to the ''

I Ching The ''I Ching'' or ''Yi Jing'' (, ), usually translated ''Book of Changes'' or ''Classic of Changes'', is an ancient Chinese divination text that is among the oldest of the Chinese classics. Originally a divination manual in the Western Zh ...

,'' a late section traditionally attributed to

Confucius Confucius ( ; zh, s=, p=Kǒng Fūzǐ, "Master Kǒng"; or commonly zh, s=, p=Kǒngzǐ, labels=no; – ) was a Chinese philosopher and politician of the Spring and Autumn period who is traditionally considered the paragon of Chinese sages. C ...

but more likely dating to about the 3rd century B.C.E.

Therefore there is in the Changes the Great Primal Beginning. This generates the two primary forces. The two primary forces generate the four images. The four images generate the eight trigrams. The eight trigrams determine good fortune and misfortune. Good fortune and misfortune create the great field of action. (tr. Wilhelm and Baynes 1967:318-9)

This sequence of

powers of two A power of two is a number of the form where is an integer, that is, the result of exponentiation with number two as the base and integer as the exponent. In a context where only integers are considered, is restricted to non-negati ...

includes '' Taiji'' → Yin-yang (two polarities) → ''Sixiang'' ( Four Symbols) → '' Bagua'' (eight trigrams). Richard Wilhelm and

Cary F. Baynes Cary Baynes, born Cary Fink (1883-1977) was an American Jungian psychologist and translator.

''Taijitu shuo''

The

Song Dynasty The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the res ...

philosopher Zhou Dunyi (1017-1073 CE) wrote the ''Taijitu shuo'' "Explanation of the Diagram of the Supreme Ultimate", which became the cornerstone of Neo-Confucianist cosmology. His brief text synthesized aspects of

Chinese Buddhism Chinese Buddhism or Han Buddhism ( zh, s=汉传佛教, t=漢傳佛教, p=Hànchuán Fójiào) is a Chinese form of Mahayana Buddhism which has shaped Chinese culture in a wide variety of areas including art, politics, literature, philosophy, ...

and Daoism with metaphysical discussions in the ''I ching''. Zhou's key terms Wuji and Taiji appear in the opening line , which Adler notes could also be translated "The Supreme Polarity that is Non-Polar!".

Non-polar (''wuji'') and yet Supreme Polarity (''taiji'')! The Supreme Polarity in activity generates ''yang''; yet at the limit of activity it is still. In stillness it generates ''yin''; yet at the limit of stillness it is also active. Activity and stillness alternate; each is the basis of the other. In distinguishing ''yin'' and ''yang'', the Two Modes are thereby established. The alternation and combination of ''yang'' and ''yin'' generate water, fire, wood, metal, and earth. With these five hases of''qi'' harmoniously arranged, the Four Seasons proceed through them. The Five Phases are simply ''yin'' and ''yang''; ''yin'' and ''yang'' are simply the Supreme Polarity; the Supreme Polarity is fundamentally Non-polar. etin the generation of the Five Phases, each one has its nature. (tr. Adler 1999:673-4)

Instead of usual ''Taiji'' translations "Supreme Ultimate" or "Supreme Pole", Adler uses "Supreme Polarity" (see Robinet 1990) because

Zhu Xi Zhu Xi (; ; October 18, 1130 – April 23, 1200), formerly romanized Chu Hsi, was a Chinese calligrapher, historian, philosopher, poet, and politician during the Song dynasty. Zhu was influential in the development of Neo-Confucianism. He con ...

describes it as the alternating principle of ''yin'' and ''yang'', and ...

insists that ''taiji'' is not a thing (hence "Supreme Pole" will not do). Thus, for both Zhou and Zhu, ''taiji'' is the ''yin-yang'' principle of bipolarity, which is the most fundamental ordering principle, the cosmic "first principle." ''Wuji'' as "non-polar" follows from this.

Core concept

Taiji is understood to be the highest conceivable principle, that from which existence flows. This is very similar to the Daoist idea "reversal is the movement of the Dao". The "supreme ultimate" creates yang and yin: movement generates yang; when its activity reaches its limit, it becomes tranquil. Through tranquility the supreme ultimate generates yin. When tranquility has reached its limit, there is a return to movement. Movement and tranquility, in alternation, become each the source of the other. The distinction between the yin and yang is determined and the two forms (that is, the yin and yang) stand revealed. By the transformations of the yang and the union of the yin, the 5 elements (Qi) of water, fire, wood, metal and earth are produced. These 5 Qi become diffused, which creates harmony. Once there is harmony the 4 seasons can occur. Yin and yang produced all things, and these in their turn produce and reproduce, this makes these processes never ending. (Wu, 1986) Taiji underlies the practical Taijiquan ( T'ai Chi Ch'uan) – A Chinese internal martial art based on the principles of Yin and Yang and Taoist philosophy, and devoted to internal energetic and physical training. Taijiquan is represented by five family styles: Chen, Yang, Wu(Hao), Wu, and Sun. There are also several offshoots of the five families as well as more recent simplified and combined styles for competition.

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