The South Sudan People's Defence Forces (SSPDF), formerly the Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA), is the army of the

Republic of South Sudan A republic () is a " state in which power rests with the people or their representatives; specifically a state without a monarchy" and also a "government, or system of government, of such a state." Previously, especially in the 17th and 18th ...

. The SPLA was founded as a guerrilla movement against the government of

Sudan Sudan ( or ; ar, السودان, as-Sūdān, officially the Republic of the Sudan ( ar, جمهورية السودان, link=no, Jumhūriyyat as-Sūdān), is a country in Northeast Africa. It shares borders with the Central African Republic t ...

in 1983 and was a key participant of the

Second Sudanese Civil War The Second Sudanese Civil War was a conflict from 1983 to 2005 between the central Sudanese government and the Sudan People's Liberation Army. It was largely a continuation of the First Sudanese Civil War of 1955 to 1972. Although it originated ...

, led by

John Garang John Garang de Mabior (June 23, 1945 – July 30, 2005) was a Sudanese politician and revolutionary leader. From 1983 to 2005, he led the Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA) after the Second Sudanese Civil War, the comprehensive peace agreeme ...

. After Garang's death in 2005,

Salva Kiir Salva (Latin for "Save") may refer to: People * Francisco Salva Campillo (1751-1828), Spanish scientist *Ramon d'Salva (born 1921), Filipino actor * Héctor Salva (1939-2015), Uruguayan football midfielder * Salva Kiir Mayardit (born 1951), South ...

was named the SPLA's new Commander-in-Chief. As of 2010, the SPLA was divided into divisions of 10,000–14,000 soldiers. Following the

Comprehensive Peace Agreement The Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA, ar, اتفاقية السلام الشامل, Ittifāqiyyah al-salām al-šāmil), also known as the Naivasha Agreement, was an accord signed on January 9, 2005, by the Sudan People's Liberation Movem ...

in 2005, the last remaining large and well-equipped militia, the

South Sudan Defence Forces The South Sudan People's Defence Forces (SSPDF), formerly the Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA), is the army of the Republic of South Sudan. The SPLA was founded as a guerrilla movement against the government of Sudan in 1983 and was a ...

(SSDF), under General

Paulino Matiep Paulino Matip Nhial (1942 – 22 August 2012), or Matiep Nhial, was a military leader and politician in South Sudan. Early career Paulino belonged to the Bul section of the Nuer people. He joined the Anyanya separatist force during the First Suda ...

, signed an agreement with Kiir known as the Juba Declaration, which amalgamated the two forces under the SPLA banner. Following

South Sudan's independence South Sudan (; din, Paguot Thudän), officially the Republic of South Sudan ( din, Paankɔc Cuëny Thudän), is a landlocked country in East Africa. It is bordered by Ethiopia, Sudan, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of t ...

in 2011, Kiir became President and the SPLA became the new republic's regular army. In May 2017 there was a restructure and the SPLA took on the name of South Sudan Defence Forces (SSDF), with another change in September 2018 to South Sudan People's Defence Forces. , the army was estimated to have 185,000 soldiers as well as an unknown number of personnel in the small South Sudan Air Force. , the SSPDF comprised the Ground Force, Air Force, Air Defence Forces and Presidential Guard.

History

1983: Inception

On 16th, May 1983 105 Battalion launched a mutiny in Malual-Chaat barrack, Bor against the Sudanese army which later inspired a number of mutinies in the Southern region. and also at Ayod, Pochalla, and

Pibor Pibor, also called Pibor Post, is a town in South Sudan. Location Pibor located in Pibor County, in Pibor Administrative Area, in eastern South Sudan, near the border with Ethiopia. It lies approximately , by road, northeast of Juba, the capita ...

. These mutinies led to the creation of the SPLA. The Sudan People's Liberation Army was founded in the same year 1983 under the leadership of Commander-in-Chief John Garang de Mabior.Rone, Jemera.
Civilian Devastation: Abuses by All Parties in the War in Southern Sudan
''. New York: Human Rights Watch, 1994. p. xiv Bol was appointed second ranking Commander, and Bany third. By June 1983, the majority of mutineers had moved to

Ethiopia Ethiopia, , om, Itiyoophiyaa, so, Itoobiya, ti, ኢትዮጵያ, Ítiyop'iya, aa, Itiyoppiya officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a landlocked country in the Horn of Africa. It shares borders with Eritrea to the ...

or were on their way. The Ethiopian government's decision to support the emerging SPLA was a means of exacting revenge upon the Sudanese government for its support of Eritrean rebels. SPLA struggled for a united and secular Sudanese state. Garang said the struggle of the South Sudanese was the same as that of marginalised groups in the north, such as the Nuba and Fur peoples.Africa Watch Committee.
Denying the Honor of Living: Sudan, a Human Rights Disaster : an Africa Watch Report
''. New York, N.Y.: Africa Watch Committee, 1990. pp. 18-19 Until 1985, SPLA directed its public denouncements of the Sudanese government specifically at Sudanese President,

Jaafar Nimeiry Jaafar Muhammad an-Nimeiry (otherwise spelled in English as Jaafar Nimeiry, Gaafar Nimeiry or Ja'far Muhammad Numayri; ar, جعفر محمد النميري; 26 April 192830 May 2009) was a Sudanese politician who served as the president of Sud ...

. During the years that followed, SPLA propaganda denounced the

Khartoum Khartoum or Khartum ( ; ar, الخرطوم, Al-Khurṭūm, din, Kaartuɔ̈m) is the capital of Sudan. With a population of 5,274,321, its metropolitan area is the largest in Sudan. It is located at the confluence of the White Nile, flowing n ...

government as a family affair that played on sectarian tensions. SPLA denounced the introduction of

sharia Sharia (; ar, شريعة, sharīʿa ) is a body of religious law that forms a part of the Islamic tradition. It is derived from the religious precepts of Islam and is based on the sacred scriptures of Islam, particularly the Quran and the H ...

law in September 1983.Africa Watch Committee.
Denying the Honor of Living: Sudan, a Human Rights Disaster : an Africa Watch Report
''. New York, N.Y.: Africa Watch Committee, 1990. p. 23

War in the 1980s

In the village of Bilpam, the first full-fledged SPLA battalion graduated in 1984. The name 'Bilpam' carried great symbolic importance for SPLA for years to come, as the epicentre of the uprising. After Bilpam, other SPLA training camps were established at Dimma,

Bonga Bonga is a town, woreda and capital of the South West Ethiopia Peoples' Region in Ethiopia. Located in the Keffa Zone upon a hill in the upper Barta valley, it has a latitude and longitude of with an elevation of 1,714 meters above sea leve ...

and Panyido. In the mid-1980s the SPLA armed struggle blocked development projects of the Sudanese government, such as the

Bentiu Bentiu, also spelled Bantiu, is a city in South Sudan and capital of the state of Unity State. Location Bentiu is located in Rubkona County, Unity State, in northern South Sudan, near the international border with the Republic of the Sudan. It li ...

Oil Fields. SPLA launched its first advance in

Equatoria Equatoria is a region of southern South Sudan, along the upper reaches of the White Nile. Originally a province of Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, it also contained most of northern parts of present-day Uganda, including Lake Albert and West Nile. It ...

in 1985-1986. During this campaign, SPLA were confronted by a number of pro-government militias. The conduct of SPLA forces was chaotic, with many atrocities against the civilian population. The SPLA drove out around 35,000

Uganda }), is a landlocked country in East Africa. The country is bordered to the east by Kenya, to the north by South Sudan, to the west by the Democratic Republic of the Congo, to the south-west by Rwanda, and to the south by Tanzania. The ...

n refugees (who had settled in Equatoria since the early 1980s) back into Uganda. SPLA had a complicated relationship with

Anyanya II Anyanya II is the name taken in 1978 by a group of the 64 tribes of South Sudan dissidents who took up arms in All of Sudan. The name implies continuity with the Anyanya, or Anya-Nya, movement of the First Sudanese Civil War (1955-1972). When t ...

. Anyanya II forces blocked the expansion of SPLA between 1984 and 1987, as Anyanya II attacked SPLA recruits heading for Ethiopia. Anyanya II also attacked civilians believed to be SPLA supporters.Rone, Jemera.
Civilian Devastation: Abuses by All Parties in the War in Southern Sudan
''. New York: Human Rights Watch, 1994. p. 1 The conflict between Anyanya II and SPLA had a political dimension, as Anyanya II sought to build an independent South Sudanese state.Rone, Jemera.
Civilian Devastation: Abuses by All Parties in the War in Southern Sudan
''. New York: Human Rights Watch, 1994. p. 27 SPLA tried to win over the leaders of Anyanya II. The Anyanya II commander

Gordon Kong Chuol Gordon Kong Chuol is a former militia commander in South Sudan, who fought for the Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA) and later for the forces led by Riek Machar during the Second Sudanese Civil War. Independence fighter Gordon Kong Chuol be ...

aligned with SPLA in late 1987. Other sectors of Anyanya II followed his example over the ensuing years, marginalizing the remainder of Anyanya II (allied with the Sudanese government).Rone, Jemera.
Civilian Devastation: Abuses by All Parties in the War in Southern Sudan
''. New York: Human Rights Watch, 1994. pp. 21, 23 Another force that confronted SPLA were the ''Murahaleen'' militias in northern Bahr el-Ghazal. Warfare between SPLA and ''Muraleheen'' began in 1987. By 1988 SPLA controlled most of the northern Bahr el-Ghazal.Africa Watch Committee.
Denying the Honor of Living: Sudan, a Human Rights Disaster : an Africa Watch Report
''. New York, N.Y.: Africa Watch Committee, 1990. pp. 153-155 Unlike the Anyanya II, the ''Murahaleen'' had no political ambitions. In March 1986, the SPLA kidnapped a Norwegian aid worker of the Christian NGO Kirkens Nødhjelp ( Norwegian Church Aid). Moorcroft writes that by this time, 'training, weapons, and discipline improved as the guerillas scored more and more victories. In November 1987 the guerillas captured the small town of Kurmak near the Ethiopian border. It was 450 miles from the capital, but the nearby dam provided most of Khartoum's electricity.' The government showed itself very nervous about containing the SPLA advance.

Political openings

SPLA boycotted the 1986 elections. In half of the constituencies of southern Sudan elections could not be held due to the SPLA boycott. Africa Watch Committee.
Denying the Honor of Living: Sudan, a Human Rights Disaster : an Africa Watch Report
''. New York, N.Y.: Africa Watch Committee, 1990. p. 22 In September 1989, the RCC invited different sectors to a 'National Dialogue Conference'. The SPLA refused to attend. On November 15, 1988, SPLA entered into an alliance with the DUP. The two parties had agreed on the lifting of the state of emergency and abolition of sharia law. The press release was made public through an announcement on Radio SPLA. After DUP rejoined the government, a ceasefire with SPLA was achieved. After the elections, negotiations between SPLA and

Sadiq al-Mahdi Sadiq al-Mahdi ( ar, الصادق المهدي, aṣ-Ṣādiq al-Mahdī; 25 December 193526 November 2020), also known as Sadiq as-Siddiq, was a Sudanese political and religious figure who was Prime Minister of Sudan from 1966 to 1967 and again f ...

started, but were aborted after SPLA shot down a civilian airplane, killing 60 people. With the NIF coup d'état in 1989, all peace talks ended. SPLA launched a major offensive between 1989 and the fall of the Ethiopian

Derg The Derg (also spelled Dergue; , ), officially the Provisional Military Administrative Council (PMAC), was the military junta that ruled Ethiopia, then including present-day Eritrea, from 1974 to 1987, when the military leadership formally " ...

government in 1991. It captured various towns, such as Bor,

Waat Waat is a village in the northeastern part of South Sudan. It is located in Nyirol County, Jonglei State Jonglei State is a state of South Sudan with Bor as its centre of government and the biggest city. Jonglei state comprises nine counties ...

Maridi Maridi is a town in South Sudan. Location Maridi is located in Maridi County, Western Equatoria State, near the international border between South Sudan and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. This location lies approximately , by road, west o ...

Mundri Mundri is a village in Kaithal tehsil of Kaithal district of Haryana in India.Yambio, Kaya,

Kajo-Kaji Kajo Keji, also spelled Kajokaji, Kajukeji, Kajo-keji and Kago Kaju, is a town in South Sudan. Location Kajo Keji is part of the six counties of Central Equatoria (one of the ten states of South Sudan). It is approximately , by road, south of J ...

Nimule Nimule is a city in the southern part of South Sudan in Magwi County, Eastern Equatoria. It lies approximately , by road, southeast of Juba, the capital of South Sudan and largest city in the country. The town also lies approximately , by road, n ...

, Kapoeta, Torit, Akobo and

Nasir Nasir ( ar, ناصر, translit=Nāṣir) is a masculine given name, commonly found in Arabic which can mean "helper" or "one who gives victory" (grammatically the Stem I masculine singular active participle of consonantal verb root ''n-ṣ-r''). ...

. By the middle of 1991, SPLA controlled most parts of southern Sudan with the exception of the major garrison towns (

Juba Juba () is the capital and largest city of South Sudan. The city is situated on the White Nile and also serves as the capital of the Central Equatoria State. It is the world's newest capital city to be elevated as such, and had a population ...

, Yei,

Malakal Malakal is a city in South Sudan. It is the capital of Upper Nile State, South Sudan, along the White Nile River. It also serves as the headquarter of Malakal county and it used to be the headquarter of Upper Nile Region from 1970s to late 1990s ...

and Wau) Between January 21 and 29, 1990, SPLA shelled Juba. SPLA forces also moved into the Nuba Mountains and the southern parts of the Blue Nile State. In comparison with its 1985–1986 offensive in Equatoria, the conduct of SPLA was now more orderly.

1991: Setback and split

But the downfall of the

government in Ethiopia in May 1991 caused a major setback. The Ethiopian government had provided the SPLA with military supplies, training facilities and a safe haven for bases for 18 years. Soon after the change of government in Ethiopia, SPLA accompanied hundreds of thousands of refugees back into Sudan. A split in SPLA had simmered since late 1990, as

Lam Akol Dr. Lam Akol Ajawin, is a South Sudanese politician of Shilluk descent. He is the current leader of National Democratic Movement (NDM) party. He is a former high-ranking official in the Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA), and subsequently bec ...

and

Riek Machar Dr. Riek Machar Teny Dhurgon (born 26 November 1952) is a South Sudanese politician who serves as the First Vice President of South Sudan. Political life In February 2020, Machar was re-sworn in as first vice president following a revitalised ...

began to question Garang's leadership. Akol began secretly contacting SPLA officers to join his side, especially among the Nuer and

Shilluk people The Shilluk ( Shilluk: ''Chollo'') are a major Luo Nilotic ethnic group of Southern Sudan, living on both banks of the river Nile, in the vicinity of the city of Malakal. Before the Second Sudanese Civil War the Shilluk also lived in a number ...

s. The situation deteriorated after the fall of the Derg.Rone, Jemera.
Civilian Devastation: Abuses by All Parties in the War in Southern Sudan
'. New York: Human Rights Watch, 1994. p. 25 As the Derg regime crumbled, Akol published a document titled ''Why Garang Must Go Now''.Guarak, Mawut Achiecque Mach.
Integration and Fragmentation of the Sudan: An African Renaissance
'. Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse, 2011. p. 208 The split was made public on August 28, 1991, in what became known as the

Nasir Declaration The SPLA-Nasir was a splinter faction of the Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA), a rebel group that fought in the Second Sudanese Civil War. Originally created as an attempt by the Nuer tribe to replace SPLA leader John Garang in August 1991, ...

. The dissidents called for democratization of SPLA, a stop to human rights abuses, and an independent South Sudan (in contrast to the SPLA line of creating a united and secular Sudan). Kong Coul joined the rebellion. The 'SPLA-Nasir' was joined by the SPLA forces in Ayod,

, Adok, Abwong, Ler and Akobo.Rone, Jemera.
Civilian Devastation: Abuses by All Parties in the War in Southern Sudan
'. New York: Human Rights Watch, 1994. p. 90 A period of chaos reigned inside SPLA, as it was not clear which units sided with Garang and which with SPLA-Nasir. Garang issued a statement through the SPLA radio communications system, denouncing the coup. Nine out of eleven (excluding himself) SPLA/M PMHC members sided with Garang.Guarak, Mawut Achiecque Mach.
Integration and Fragmentation of the Sudan: An African Renaissance
'. Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse, 2011. p. 210 The mainstream SPLA led by Garang was based in Torit. The two SPLA factions fought each other, including attacks on civilians on their opponents' turf.

Battles of 1992

As of 1992 the Sudanese government launched a major offensive against SPLA, which was weakened by the split with SPLA-Nasir. SPLA lost control of Torit (where SPLA was headquartered), Bor, Yirol,

, Pochalla and Kapoeta. SPLA made two attacks on Juba in June–July 1992, during which they nearly captured the town. After the attacks, the Sudanese government forces committed harsh reprisals against the civilian population.

Summary execution A summary execution is an execution in which a person is accused of a crime and immediately killed without the benefit of a full and fair trial. Executions as the result of summary justice (such as a drumhead court-martial) are sometimes includ ...

s of suspected SPLA collaborators were carried out. On September 27, 1992 the deputy commander-in-chief of SPLA, William Nyuon, defected and took a section of fighters with him.Guarak, Mawut Achiecque Mach.
Integration and Fragmentation of the Sudan: An African Renaissance
'. Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse, 2011. p. 220 SPLA recaptured Bor on November 29, 1991.

Mid-1990s

As of the mid-1990s, the majority of the population of Southern Sudan lived in areas under the control of either the mainstream SPLA or SPLA-Nasir.

2005 Comprehensive Peace Agreement

In 2004, a year before the Comprehensive Peace Agreement, the Coalition to Stop Child Soldiers, estimated that there were between 2,500 and 5,000 children serving in the SPLA. Salva Kiir-3, by Stein Ove Korneliussen

Following the signing of the CPA, a SPLA reorganisation process began. This process was actively supported by funding from the

United States The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country Continental United States, primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 U.S. state, states, a Washington, D.C., ...

. In 2005, Garang restructured the top leadership of SPLA, with a Chief of General Staff, Lt. Gen.

Oyay Deng Ajak Oyay Deng Ajak (born 16 October 1962) is a South Sudanese politician. He was formerly the Chief of Staff of the National Army, the Minister for Investment in the Cabinet of South Sudan as well as Minister of National Security. He was appointed t ...

, and four Deputy Chiefs of General Staff: Maj. Gen. Salva Mathok Gengdit (Administration), Maj. Gen. Bior Ajang Aswad (Operations), Maj. Gen.

James Hoth Mai General James Hoth Mai (born November 30, 1959) is a South Sudanese army officer. He served as Chief of General Staff of the Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA) from 2009 until 2014. Biography Ethnically a member of the Nuer people, Hoth ...

(Logistics) and Maj. Gen. Obuto Mamur Mete (Political and Moral Orientation). Sudan Envoy - Malakal JIU

The initial organisation of the SPLA, based on divisions, was assembled in mid-2005 but not actually put into practice in the field until 2006. It was based on six divisions (in Upper Nile State; 2nd Division: Equatorias; 3rd Division: Northern Bahr el Ghazal and Warrap states; 4th Division Unity State; the

5th Division In military terms, 5th Division may refer to: Infantry divisions *5th Division (Australia) * 5th Division (People's Republic of China) * 5th Division (Colombia) * Finnish 5th Division (Continuation War) *5th Light Cavalry Division (France) * 5th M ...

Lakes State Lakes State is a state in South Sudan. It has an area of 43,595.08 km2. Rumbek is the capital of the state. Lakes is in the Bahr el Ghazal region of South Sudan, in addition to Northern Bahr el Ghazal, Western Bahr el Ghazal, and Warrap st ...

, the 6th Division, SPLA personnel in the

Joint Integrated Units The Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF; ar, القوات المسلحة السودانية, Al-Quwwat al-Musallaha as-Sudaniyah) are the military forces of the Republic of the Sudan. In 2011, IISS estimated the regular forces' numbers at personnel, whi ...

) and four independent brigades. The four independent brigades grouped SPLA forces in Bor (Khoriom, 104, and 105 Battalions mainly), Southern Blue Nile, the Nuba Mountains (South Kordofan) and Raja (Western Bahr el Ghazal). Probably more important than the reorganisation was the Juba Declaration, signed by Salva and General

on 8 January 2006. Matiep commanded the South Sudan Defence Forces (SSDF), the largest and best-equipped militia (about 50,000 men) that remained beyond SPLA control. Paulino was appointed Deputy Chief of Staff, the second highest position, his subordinate generals became part of the SPLA without any reduction in rank, and about 50,000 SSDF were added to the SPLA payroll. The number of generals in the SPLA also rose as Salva promoted hundreds of existing SPLA officers to match the arriving ex-SSDF generals. By 2011 and independence, the SPLA had 745 generals. At about the same time, the legislature voted to double infantrymen's base pay from the equivalent of $75 a month (the rate under Khartoum's control) to $150. The unification of the two largest armed groups in the region seriously weakened Khartoum’s control of South Sudan. In 2007–08 the independent brigades in Blue Nile, Bor, and the Nuba Mountains became the 10th, 8th, and 9th divisions, respectively. The 9th and 10th Divisions thus fell north of the 1-1-56 Independence dividing line between North and South Sudan. The last independent brigade, in

Raja ''Raja'' (; from , IAST ') is a royal title used for South Asian monarchs. The title is equivalent to king or princely ruler in South Asia and Southeast Asia. The title has a long history in South Asia and Southeast Asia, being attested ...

, became part of the 5th Division.

Ministry of Defence

In 2007, the SPLM/A established a Ministry of Defence. Gen.

Dominic Dim Deng Lt Gen Dominic Dim Deng (1 March 1950 – 2 May 2008) was a senior member of the Sudan People's Liberation Army, a distinguished military veteran general and the first defence minister in the Government of Southern Sudan who lost his life alongsi ...

, an SPLA veteran, was chosen as the first Minister for SPLA Affairs and the first political officer of the SPLA. Dim died in a plane crash in 2008 alongside his wife, Josephine Apieu Jenaro Aken, and other SPLA officers. He is buried alongside his wife at the SPLA headquarters in Bilpham, Juba. Deputy Chief of Staff (Logistics) James Hoth Mai replaced Oyay Deng Ajak as Chief of General Staff in May 2009. In 2010 U.S. diplomats reported that Samora "made a point to discuss how the SPLA needed to be reorganized. He stated that the SPLA was top heavy, carrying nearly 550 general officers and providing more than 200 security guards for each minister." The 2005

stipulated that the SPLA in northern Sudan were to move south of the 1956 North-South boundary during the interim period, excepting those part of the

, composed of equal numbers from the SPLA and the Sudanese Armed Forces. Officially, this move did take place, in 2008, with the 10th Division relocating its headquarters to Guffa, five kilometers south of the Blue Nile-Upper Nile border, and most of its troops to al-Fuj, Yafta and Marinja on the southern side. But more than 1,600 fighters remained north of the line. In early June 2011, following the lack of progress on popular consultations in Southern Kordofan & Blue Nile, the SAF attempted to forcefully disarm Nuba SPLA soldiers, and fighting began in Southern Kordofan. After the fighting began, former SPLA 9th and 10th Division fighters proclaimed themselves the

Sudan People's Liberation Movement-North Sudan People's Liberation Movement – North ( ar-at, حركة الشعبية لتحرير السودان-الشمال, Harakat Al-Sha'abi Li-Tahrir Al-Sudan-Al-Shamal), or SPLM–N, is a political party and militant organisation in the Republic ...

(SPLA-N), under Malik Agar as Chairman and Commander-in-Chief. The Government of Southern Sudan named the SPLA General Headquarters outside Juba 'Bilpam'.Guarak, Mawut Achiecque Mach.
Integration and Fragmentation of the Sudan: An African Renaissance
'. Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse, 2011. pp. 252-253 The headquarters staff was expanded after 2008 to match the ten-division structure. This expansion coincided with the completion of the GHQ facility at Bilpam, built by DynCorp with funds from the

U.S. State Department The United States Department of State (DOS), or State Department, is an executive department of the U.S. federal government responsible for the country's foreign policy and relations. Equivalent to the ministry of foreign affairs of other n ...

’s Africa Peacekeeping Program (AFRICAP). Work on a national security strategy began in late 2012.

Southern Civil War

On December 15, 2013, fighting broke out in Juba between different factions of the armed forces in what the South Sudanese government described as a

coup d'état A coup d'état (; French for 'stroke of state'), also known as a coup or overthrow, is a seizure and removal of a government and its powers. Typically, it is an illegal seizure of power by a political faction, politician, cult, rebel group, m ...

. President Kiir announced that the attempt had been put down the next day, but fighting resumed December 16. Military spokesman Colonel Philip Aguer said that some military installations had been attacked by armed soldiers but that "the army is in full control of Juba." He added that an investigation was under way. Eventually the Sudan People's Liberation Movement split into two main factions, divided on the issue over leadership of the ruling party: *The Sudan People's Liberation Movement (In Government) was led by President Kiir; it was the ruling faction that signed the Comprehensive Peace Agreement in January 2005. Kiir served as president of the Transitional Autonomous Region of South Sudan from its formation in 2005 after Garang's death until the country's independence in 2011. The SPLM-IO faction formally withdrew from the SPLM ruling faction in 2013. *The Sudan People's Liberation Movement (In Opposition) was formed in 2013 and is led by former South Sudan Vice President

. The group is the major opponent to the SPLM-IG faction in the Southern Sudanese civil war. The coordination of the April–July 2015 attack by the SPLA-IG in Unity State—involving multiple divisions across multiple sectors—indicates a high level of operational planning from Juba. The ferocity with which people were chased into the swamps to be killed was aimed at annihilating the SPLM/A-in-Opposition's support, and led to systematic destruction of villages and towns. The Tiger Faction New Forces (also called Tiger Faction or 'The Tigers') split from the SPLA in late October 2015. A Shilluk militia, it aimed to reverse the division of South Sudan into 28 (later 32) states in order to restore the territory of the

Shilluk Kingdom The Shilluk Kingdom, dominated by the Shilluk people, was located along the left bank of the White Nile river in what is now South Sudan and southern Sudan. Its capital and royal residence was in the town of Fashoda. According to Shilluk folk h ...

to its 1956 borders. Led by Yoanis Okiech, the TFNF started an insurgency against the

SPLM The Sudan People's Liberation Movement (SPLM; ar, الحركة الشعبية لتحرير السودان, ''Al-Ḥarakat ash-Shaʿbiyyat liTaḥrīr as-Sūdān'') is a political party in South Sudan. It was initially founded as the political w ...

government. In 2016, however, it also came into conflict with the SPLM-IO rebels, leading to Okiech's death and the group's destruction in January 2017. Over the course of the war, the SPLA has become dominated by Dinka, in particular Dinka from greater Bahr el-Ghazal. The Panel of Experts wrote in 2016, "While other tribes are represented in SPLA, they are increasingly marginalized, rendering the multi-tribal structure of the army largely a façade that obscures the central role that Dinka now play in virtually all major theatres of the conflict". (S/2016/963, 8)

2017–2018: SSPDF

On May 16, 2017, Kiir announced a restructure of the army and change of name to the South Sudan Defence Forces (SSDF). A cessation of hostilities agreement was reached in December 2017, but never really took effect. In August 2017, Kiir announced that the new name for the army would be the South Sudan People's Defence Forces (SSPDF) "by the need to represent the will of the people". He said that there was a need to reorganise and professionalise the army. According to Professor Joel Isabirye, the change of name would shift the discourse from the era of liberation, which had now concluded, to one of national defence, which is ongoing – with the focus on defending the country against external aggression. The insertion of "People’s" into the name "could be to avoid being dragged back into history when during the Second Sudanese Civil War (1983-2005) a militia called South Sudan Defense Forces (SSDF) emerged and aligned with the Government of Sudan". The negotiations stalled over disagreement among the parties about power sharing, future security arrangements and whether Riak Machar could return from exile to political life in South Sudan. In early May 2018, a two-day meeting of the Parties to the Revitalized Agreement on the Resolution of the Conflict in South Sudan (R-ARCSS) started in

Addis Ababa Addis Ababa (; am, አዲስ አበባ, , new flower ; also known as , lit. "natural spring" in Oromo), is the capital and largest city of Ethiopia. It is also served as major administrative center of the Oromia Region. In the 2007 census, t ...

. The parties were to take stock of the progress so far of the R-ARCSS, the pending tasks, and debate the way forward. The army was officially renamed South Sudan People's Defence Forces in September 2018 by a Republican order read on the state-owned TV channel SSBC known as South Sudan Broadcasting Services ,the national television in South Sudan. The renaming occurred ten days before implementation of new security arrangements, which include the reunification of the national army. President Kiir was also Commander-in-Chief of the army. As of 2018, the army was estimated to have 185,000 soldiers as well as an unknown number of personnel in the small South Sudan Air Force. According to the CIA ''

World Factbook ''The World Factbook'', also known as the ''CIA World Factbook'', is a reference resource produced by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) with almanac-style information about the countries of the world. The official print version is available ...

'' , "under the September 2018 peace agreement, all armed groups in South Sudan were to assemble at designated sites where fighters could be either disarmed and demobilized, or integrated into unified military and police forces; the unified forces were then to be retrained and deployed prior to the formation of a national unity government; all fighters were ordered to these sites in July 2019, but as of April 2020 this process had not been completed".

2019

As of 2019, the SSPDF comprised the Ground Force, Air Force, Air Defense Forces, and Presidential Guard. In October 2019, more than 40 members of South Sudan People’s Defense Forces (SSPDF) undertook two-day training organised by the United Nations Mission in South Sudan (UNMISS) in

Kuajok Kuajok, also spelled as Kuacjok or Kwajok, is a city in South Sudan, and the capital of Warrap State. Location Kuajok is located in Warrap State, in Bahr el Ghazal Region, in northwestern South Sudan, near the international border with the Repu ...

, Gogrial. UNMISS has been in the country since 2011, aiming to consolidate peace and achieve security to allow economic growth and political stability. They were deploying more than 19,000 personnel in the country as of September 2019.

Structure and equipment

The SPLA was commanded by the Chief of General Staff] (COGS). Deputy Chief of Staff (Logistics) James Hoth Mai replaced Oyay Deng Ajak as Chief of General Staff in May 2009.

was superseded by

Paul Malong Awan Paul Malong Awan (born 1962), also known as Paul Malong Awan Anei, King Paul, and General Paul, is a South Sudanese politician and military figure. Until 16 May 2017 he was the Chief of General Staffs (COGS) of the Sudan People’s Liberation A ...

as COGS in 2014. After the restructure as SSPDF, Malong was superseded by

James Ajongo Mawut James Ajongo Mawut (1 January 1961 – 20 April 2018) Was the Chief and top General of the South Sudanese Military, the South Sudanese Peoples Defence Force, (SSPDF). He was appointed on 9 May 2017 and took-over the office on 10 May 2017 after he ...

(May 2017–April 2018), with the position now referred to as "chief of defence force(s)". On 28 April 2018, Chief of General Staff

died in Cairo from a short illness. He was replaced by General Gabriel Jok Riak on 4 May 2018. On 11 May 2020 President Kiir removed Riak and appointed General Johnson Juma Okot as Chief of Defence Forces, who had been serving as deputy chief. On 11 April 2021, Okot was replaced by Santino Deng Wol as the chief of Defense Forces. Map of SSPDF Divisions in Cantonment

SPLA structure and equipment

The COGS oversaw five directorates, each led by a Deputy Chief of General Staff (DCOGS): * Administration * Operations * Logistics * Political and Moral Orientation * Training and Research The SPLA had nine divisions and a small air force, all of which reported to the DCOGS, Operations: * 1st Division : Renk, Upper Nile State. Established 2006. After the CPA,

George Athor George Athor Deng (1962 – 19 December 2011) was the Sudan People's Liberation Army lieutenant general and a SPLA dissident who led the South Sudan Democratic Movement and its military wing, the South Sudan Defence Army. He was also an indep ...

was appointed a major general and confirmed in overall commander of Division I (2005–07) before being moved to SPLA HQ in Bilpam as director for administration. The

Small Arms Survey The Small Arms Survey (SAS) is an independent research project located at the Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies in Geneva, Switzerland. It provides information on all aspects of small arms and armed violence, as a res ...

wrote in early 2016 that '.. heDivision, stationed in Renk and widely regarded as the best fighting force in the country, is largely Nuer. Until 2 December 2015, it was under the command of

Stephen Buay Stephen or Steven is a common English first name. It is particularly significant to Christians, as it belonged to Saint Stephen ( grc-gre, Στέφανος ), an early disciple and deacon who, according to the Book of Acts, was stoned to death; h ...

, a Bul Nuer who was subsequently redeployed to lead the SPLA's 4th Division in Rubkona, Unity State.' * 2nd Division : Giada Barracks, Juba, Central Equatoria State Established 2006. By 2013 division headquarters was at Mogiri east of Juba. On 19 August 2011, it was reported that the UN SRSG would visit Kapoeta to meet the County Commissioner and the Commander of Brigade 9 of the SPLA's 2nd Division. * 3rd Division : Akuem, Wodyik Lion, Northern Bahr el Ghazal (also covers Warrap State) * 4th Division : Mapel, Western Bahr el Ghazal (formerly at Rubkona) Established 2006. Rands wrote in 2010 that "Upon integrating into the SPLA, the core forces of

, under the command of Tahib Gatluak, emainedin Mayom County in Unity State. Some were then redeployed to Juba to join Matiep’s bodyguard. The remaining men were deployed as part of the 4th Division in Duar, Unity State." News reports on December 21, 2013 from

said the 4th Division commander,

James Koang Chuol James is a common English language surname and given name: *James (name), the typically masculine first name James * James (surname), various people with the last name James James or James City may also refer to: People * King James (disambiguat ...

, had declared that he has deposed the caretaker governor and that his forces were no longer loyal to President

. Chuol said he had overthrown Governor

Joseph Monytuel Joseph is a common male given name, derived from the Hebrew Yosef (יוֹסֵף). "Joseph" is used, along with "Josef", mostly in English, French and partially German languages. This spelling is also found as a variant in the languages of the mo ...

after surviving an assassination attempt. Koang said that the 4th Division's tank unit allegedly tried to kill him at around 7pm on Friday upon being ordered by Monytuel at the behest of senior SPLA members in Juba. Significant forces from Division IV defected to the

Sudan People's Liberation Movement-in-Opposition The Sudan People's Liberation Movement-in-Opposition ( abbreviated SPLM-IO), also known as the anti-governmental forces (AGF), is a mainly South Sudanese political party and rebel group that split from the Sudan People's Liberation Movement in ...

, with their arms and ammunition. Division IV was involved in the April–July Unity State offensive by the SPLA, alongside Bul Nuer youth, other SPLA forces, and other armed groups. In 2015-16, the division was placed under the command of

. *

: Girinti Barracks, Wau, Western Bahr el Ghazal State (formerly at Rumbek) * 6th Division : Maridi,

Western Equatoria Western Equatoria is a state in South Sudan. It has an area of . Its capital is Yambio. The state was divided into counties, each headed by a County Commissioner. Western Equatoria seceded from Sudan as part of the Republic of South Sudan ...

. On 13 August 2016, some 800 to 900 troops from SPLA Division VI launched an incursion into the

Democratic Republic of the Congo The Democratic Republic of the Congo (french: République démocratique du Congo (RDC), colloquially "La RDC" ), informally Congo-Kinshasa, DR Congo, the DRC, the DROC, or the Congo, and formerly and also colloquially Zaire, is a country in ...

, crossing the border and engaging in a battle with SPLM/A in Opposition. * 7th Division : Owachi, Upper Nile State Rands wrote in 2010 that '.. ch of the SPLA's 7th Division operating west of the Nile in the Shilluk areas of Upper Nile State is composed of former forces of the SSDF commander

Peter Gadet Peter Gatdet Yak (1958 – 15 April 2019) or Peter Gadet was a Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA) general who became the leader of the South Sudan Liberation Army (SSLA), a rebel movement in South Sudan. Early life He was born between 1957 and ...

, now a major general in the SPLA. Gadet stayed with SAF Military Intelligence during the Juba Declaration process and many were suspicious of his allegiances. As of the time of writing when Rands wrote, Gadet's authority over his former men in the 7th Division was unclear. Still under command of Peter Gadet in 2013. Significant forces from Division VII defected to the

, with their arms and ammunition. Gadet died on 15 April 2019. * 8th Division : Bor,

South Sudan South Sudan (; din, Paguot Thudän), officially the Republic of South Sudan ( din, Paankɔc Cuëny Thudän), is a landlocked country in East Africa. It is bordered by Ethiopia, Sudan, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of th ...

: Formed from SPLA independent Brigades of 105 battalion and Khoriom battalion which all were formed in 1983. The former led the first SPLA rebellion against the Sudanese army Malual-Chaat garrison in Bor that later inspired several other mutinies across the Southern region and some parts of the Northern Sudan. Division 8 is headquartered in Malual-Chaat barrack which is also designated as a liberation museum to commemorate the first SPLA fallen Heroes and the entire history of South Sudan’s Succession from the North. Most outstanding statues are Kerbino Kuanyin Bol’s and Maker Jool Deng (first fallen hero). *Commondo: Formed after independence of South Sudan under the commands of the late Gen Abraham Jongroor, one of the outstanding Khoriom Battalion commander who successfully fought out Boma militias with commondo. It was the most well trained SPLA brigade on the front lines, according to the National Military Intelligence. *

Mechanized Division A mechanized process is one that uses machines. Related articles: *Mechanised agriculture, agriculture using powered machinery *Mechanization, doing work with machinery * Military: ** Self-propelled artillery, also known as mechanized artillery, ar ...

: Mapel, Western Bahr el Ghazal State Circa July 15, 2017, the Mechanized Division, with the 8th Infantry Division, was to deploy forces to the Juba-Bor road to ensure the safety of travelers, the SPLA spokesperson announced. The move came after a series of deadly road attack by armed men. * Special Forces brigade with four battalions *The Sudan People's Air Force : Juba, Central Equatoria State According to a 2015 security agreement with the

, military forces currently stationed in Juba, Bor and Malakal are to be moved to bases at least 25 kilometers outside of each respective city. The Presidential Guard at Giada Barracks and SPLA's General Headquarters in Bilpam are authorized exceptions to the agreement.

Equipment

As of 2013 the SPLA's land forces operated the following heavy equipment: *110 x

T-72 The T-72 is a family of Soviet/Russian main battle tanks that entered production in 1969. The T-72 was a development of the T-64, which was troubled by high costs and its reliance on immature developmental technology. About 25,000 T-72 tanks h ...

*A small number of

T-55 The T-54 and T-55 tanks are a series of Soviet main battle tanks introduced in the years following the Second World War. The first T-54 prototype was completed at Nizhny Tagil by the end of 1945.Steven Zaloga, T-54 and T-55 Main Battle Tank ...

tanks *12 x 2S1 Gvozdika *12 x

2S3 Akatsiya The SO-152 (Russian: СО-152) is a Soviet 152.4 mm self-propelled gun developed in 1968, as a response to the American 155 mm M109 howitzer. Development began in 1967, according to the Resolution of the Council of Ministers of the Sovie ...

*15 x BM-21 Grad *

Mamba APC The Mamba is a South African armoured personnel carrier designed for internal security purposes. It was developed during the late 1980s to replace the Buffel in service with the South African military and security forces. The first models were b ...

*More than 30 82mm mortars As of 2013 the South Sudan Air Force operated the following aircraft: *1 x

Beechcraft 1900 The Beechcraft 1900 is a 19-passenger, pressurized twin-engine turboprop regional airliner manufactured by Beechcraft. It is also used as a freight aircraft and corporate transport, and by several governmental and military organizations. With ...

*9 x

Mil Mi-17 The Mil Mi-17 (NATO reporting name: Hip) is a Soviet-designed Russian military helicopter family introduced in 1975 (Mi-8M), continuing in production at two factories, in Kazan and Ulan-Ude. It is known as the Mi-8M series in Russian service. ...

*1 x

Mi-172 The Mil Mi-17 (NATO reporting name: Hip) is a Soviet-designed Russian military helicopter family introduced in 1975 (Mi-8M), continuing in production at two factories, in Kazan and Ulan-Ude. It is known as the Mi-8M series in Russian service. ...

Defence expenditure

According to the 2013 edition of the

International Institute for Strategic Studies The International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS) is a British research institute or think tank in the area of international affairs. Since 1997, its headquarters have been Arundel House in London, England. The 2017 Global Go To Think ...

' report ''The Military Balance'', South Sudan's defence budgets since 2011 have been as follows:

Notes

References

* * *

External links

Who's who in SPLM-JubaPhotographer's Account of the SPLA - "The Cost of Silence: A Traveling Exhibition"
*U.S. Embassy Khartoum

06KHARTOUM1650_a, July 12, 2006 15:59 (Wednesday). {{Authority control Factions of the First Congo War Factions of the Second Congo War Factions of the Second Sudanese Civil War Factions of the South Sudanese Civil War Guerrilla organizations Rebel groups in Sudan Rebel groups in South Sudan Military of South Sudan Military units and formations established in 1983 1983 establishments in Sudan