Stutthof trials
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The Stutthof trials were a series of war crime tribunals held in postwar Poland for the prosecution of
Stutthof concentration camp Stutthof was a Nazi concentration camp established by Nazi Germany in a secluded, marshy, and wooded area near the village of Stutthof (now Sztutowo) 34 km (21 mi) east of the city of Danzig (Gdańsk) in the territory of the German- ...
staff and officials, responsible for the murder of up to 85,000 prisoners during the
occupation of Poland Occupation commonly refers to: * Occupation (human activity), or job, one's role in society, often a regular activity performed for payment *Occupation (protest), political demonstration by holding public or symbolic spaces *Military occupation, t ...
by
Nazi Germany Nazi Germany (lit. "National Socialist State"), ' (lit. "Nazi State") for short; also ' (lit. "National Socialist Germany") (officially known as the German Reich from 1933 until 1943, and the Greater German Reich from 1943 to 1945) was ...
in World War II.Bogdan Chrzanowski,
Andrzej Gąsiorowski Prof. Dr. hab. Andrzej Gąsiorowski (born in 1950) is a research scientist at the Stutthof concentration camp Museum in Sztutowo, Professor in the Institute of Politology, Faculty of Social Sciences of the Gdańsk University, awarded the title ...
(Zeszyty Muzeum, 5)
Załoga obozu Stutthof (Staff of Stutthof concentration camp)
(PDF file, direct download 9.14 MB) p. 189 (13/40 in PDF). Muzeum Stutthof w Sztutowie. Zaklad Narodowy Imienia Ossolinskich, Wrocław, Warszawa, Krakow 1984. PL ISSN 0137-5377.
None of the Stutthof commandants were ever tried in Poland. ''SS-Sturmbannführer''
Max Pauly Max Pauly (1 June 1907 – 8 October 1946) was an SS Standartenführer who was the commandant of Stutthof concentration camp from September 1939 to August 1942 and commandant of Neuengamme concentration camp and the associated subcamps from Septem ...
was put on trial by a British military court in Germany but not for the crimes committed at Stutthof; only as the commandant of the
Neuengamme concentration camp Neuengamme was a network of Nazi concentration camps in Northern Germany that consisted of the main camp, Neuengamme, and more than 85 satellite camps. Established in 1938 near the village of Neuengamme in the Bergedorf district of Hamburg, th ...
in Hamburg. Nevertheless, Pauly was executed in 1946. The first Polish war crimes tribunal was convened at
Gdańsk Gdańsk ( , also ; ; csb, Gduńsk;Stefan Ramułt, ''Słownik języka pomorskiego, czyli kaszubskiego'', Kraków 1893, Gdańsk 2003, ISBN 83-87408-64-6. , Johann Georg Theodor Grässe, ''Orbis latinus oder Verzeichniss der lateinischen Benen ...
, Poland, from April 25, 1946 to May 31, 1946. The next three trials took place at the same court in October 8–31, 1947, November 5–10, and in November 19–29 of that year. The fifth trial was held before the court in
Toruń )'' , image_skyline = , image_caption = , image_flag = POL Toruń flag.svg , image_shield = POL Toruń COA.svg , nickname = City of Angels, Gingerbread city, Copernicus Town , pushpin_map = Kuyavian-Pom ...
in 1949. The sixth and the last Stutthof trial in Poland took place in 1953 also in Gdańsk. In total, of the approximately 2,000 ''SS'' men and women who ran the entire camp complex, 72 ''SS'' officers and six female overseers were brought to justice.


First Stutthof trial

During the first trial held at
Gdańsk Gdańsk ( , also ; ; csb, Gduńsk;Stefan Ramułt, ''Słownik języka pomorskiego, czyli kaszubskiego'', Kraków 1893, Gdańsk 2003, ISBN 83-87408-64-6. , Johann Georg Theodor Grässe, ''Orbis latinus oder Verzeichniss der lateinischen Benen ...
from April 25, 1946, to May 31, 1946, the joint Soviet/Polish Special Criminal Court tried and convicted of crimes against humanity a group of thirteen ex-officials and overseers of the Stutthof concentration camp in
Sztutowo Sztutowo (; formerly german: Stutthof) is a village in Nowy Dwór Gdański County, within the Pomeranian Voivodeship of northern Poland. It is located about 38 km (24 mi) east of Gdańsk on the northeastern edge of the Vistula Delta, a ...
and its Bromberg-Ost subcamp for women located in the city of
Bydgoszcz Bydgoszcz ( , , ; german: Bromberg) is a city in northern Poland, straddling the meeting of the River Vistula with its left-bank tributary, the Brda. With a city population of 339,053 as of December 2021 and an urban agglomeration with more ...
. The accused were arraigned before the court and all found guilty. Twelve were sentenced to death, including the commander of the guards
Johann Pauls Johann Pauls (9 February 1908 – 4 July 1946) was a German SS-''Oberscharführer'' in Stutthof concentration camp. He was executed for war crimes. Career Pauls was born in Danzig (Gdańsk), the third child of Johann August Pauls and Minna ...
, while the remainder were sentenced to various terms of imprisonment. The death sentences were carried out on July 4, 1946 at the Biskupia Górka in Gdańsk, by short-drop hanging.Skalman.nu Forum
Stutthof Trial, April 25-May 31, 1946
at JewishVirtualLibrary.org
The commandant of the Stutthof and
Neuengamme concentration camp Neuengamme was a network of Nazi concentration camps in Northern Germany that consisted of the main camp, Neuengamme, and more than 85 satellite camps. Established in 1938 near the village of Neuengamme in the Bergedorf district of Hamburg, th ...
s ''SS-Sturmbannführer''
Max Pauly Max Pauly (1 June 1907 – 8 October 1946) was an SS Standartenführer who was the commandant of Stutthof concentration camp from September 1939 to August 1942 and commandant of Neuengamme concentration camp and the associated subcamps from Septem ...
was sentenced to death in Germany at about the same time. Pauly was tried by the British for war crimes with thirteen others in the ''Curio Haus'' in
Hamburg (male), (female) en, Hamburger(s), Hamburgian(s) , timezone1 = Central (CET) , utc_offset1 = +1 , timezone1_DST = Central (CEST) , utc_offset1_DST = +2 , postal ...
which was located in the British
occupied ' (Norwegian: ') is a Norwegian political thriller TV series that premiered on TV2 on 5 October 2015. Based on an original idea by Jo Nesbø, the series is co-created with Karianne Lund and Erik Skjoldbjærg. Season 2 premiered on 10 October ...
sector of Germany. The trial lasted from March 18, 1946 to May 13, 1946. He was found guilty and sentenced to death with 11 other defendants. He was executed by long-drop hanging by
Albert Pierrepoint Albert Pierrepoint (; 30 March 1905 – 10 July 1992) was an English hangman who executed between 435 and 600 people in a 25-year career that ended in 1956. His father Henry and uncle Thomas were official hangmen before him. Pierrepoint ...
in Hamelin Prison on October 8, 1946. The second commandant '' SS-Sturmbannführer''
Paul-Werner Hoppe Paul-Werner Hoppe (28 February 1910 – 15 July 1974) was an SS-Obersturmbannführer (lieutenant colonel) and was the commandant of Stutthof concentration camp from September 1942 until April 1945. Hoppe joined the Nazi Party with membership ...
(August 1942 - January 1945) was apprehended in 1953 in West Germany and later sentenced to nine years imprisonment.


Verdicts in the first Stutthof trial

#
Johann Pauls Johann Pauls (9 February 1908 – 4 July 1946) was a German SS-''Oberscharführer'' in Stutthof concentration camp. He was executed for war crimes. Career Pauls was born in Danzig (Gdańsk), the third child of Johann August Pauls and Minna ...
, '' SS
Oberscharführer __NOTOC__ ''Oberscharführer'' (, ) was a Nazi Party paramilitary rank that existed between 1932 and 1945. ''Oberscharführer'' was first used as a rank of the ''Sturmabteilung'' (SA) and was created due to an expansion of the enlisted positions ...
'': Death, executed: July 4, 1946 #
Jenny-Wanda Barkmann Jenny-Wanda Barkmann (30 May 1922 – 4 July 1946) was a German overseer in Nazi concentration camps during World War II. She was tried and executed for crimes against humanity after the war. Biography Barkmann is believed to have spent her c ...
, ''SS Aufseherin'': Death, executed: July 4, 1946 #
Elisabeth Becker Elisabeth Becker (20 July 1923 – 4 July 1946) was a Nazi Nazi concentration camps, concentration camp overseer in World War II. Life Becker was born in Nowy Staw, Neuteich, Free City of Danzig, Danzig (today Nowy Staw, Poland) to a German f ...
, ''SS Aufseherin'': Death, executed: July 4, 1946 #
Wanda Klaff Wanda Klaff (6 March 1922 – 4 July 1946) was a Nazi concentration camp overseer. Klaff was born in Danzig to German parents as Wanda Kalacinski. She was executed for war crimes. Early life Wanda Kalacinski was the daughter of railway wor ...
, ''SS Aufseherin'': Death, executed: July 4, 1946 #
Ewa Paradies Ewa Paradies (17 December 1920 – 4 July 1946) was a Nazi concentration camp overseer. In August 1944, Paradies arrived at the Stutthof SK-III camp for training as an '' Aufseherin'', or overseer. She soon finished training and became a ward ...
, ''SS Aufseherin'' Death, executed: July 4, 1946 #
Gerda Steinhoff Gerda Steinhoff (29 January 1922 – 4 July 1946) was a ''Schutzstaffel'' (SS) Nazi concentration camps, Nazi concentration camp overseer following the 1939 German invasion of Poland. SS career Steinhoff was born in Wrzeszcz, Danzig-Langfuhr ...
, ''SS Blockleiterin'': Death, executed: July 4, 1946 # Erna Beilhardt, ''SS Aufseherin'': 5 years imprisonment # Tadeusz Kopczynski, '' (Kapo)'': Death, executed: July 4, 1946 # Waclaw Kozlowski, ''Kapo'': Death, executed: July 4, 1946 # Jozef Reiter, ''Kapo'': Death, executed: July 4, 1946 # Fanciszek Szopinski, ''Kapo'': Death, executed: July 4, 1946 # Kazimierz Kowalski, ''Kapo'': 3 years imprisonment # Jan Brajt, ''Kapo'': Death, executed: July 4, 1946 # Aleksy Duzdal, ''Kapo'': Not guilty # Jan Preiss, ''Kapo'': Not guilty # Marian Zielkowski, ''Kapo'': Died of a heart attack in prison, August 25, 1945


Second Stutthof trial

The second trial was held from October 8, 1947, to October 31, 1947, before a Polish Special Criminal Court. Arraigned 24 ex-officials and guards of the Stutthof concentration camp were judged and found guilty. Ten were sentenced to death.


Verdicts in the second trial

Nine SS men and the ''Kapo'' Nikolaysen were executed on October 28, 1948: # Kurt Dietrich, ''SS Unterscharführer'': Death, executed: October 28, 1948 # Karl Eggert, ''SS
Rottenführer ''Rottenführer'' (, ) was a Nazi Party paramilitary rank that was first created in the year 1932. The rank of ''Rottenführer'' was used by several Nazi paramilitary groups, among them the '' Sturmabteilung'' (SA), the ''Schutzstaffel'' (SS) a ...
'': Death, executed: October 28, 1948 # Theodor Meyer, ''SS
Hauptsturmführer __NOTOC__ (, ; short: ''Hstuf'') was a Nazi Party paramilitary rank that was used in several Nazi organizations such as the SS, NSKK and the NSFK. The rank of ''Hauptsturmführer'' was a mid-level commander and had equivalent seniority to a ...
'': Death, executed: October 28, 1948 # Ewald Foth, ''SS
Oberscharführer __NOTOC__ ''Oberscharführer'' (, ) was a Nazi Party paramilitary rank that existed between 1932 and 1945. ''Oberscharführer'' was first used as a rank of the ''Sturmabteilung'' (SA) and was created due to an expansion of the enlisted positions ...
'': Death, executed: October 28, 1948 # Albert Paulitz, ''SS Oberscharführer'': Death, executed: October 28, 1948 # Fritz Peters, ''SS Unterscharführer'': Death, executed: October 28, 1948 # Hans Rach, ''SS Oberscharführer'': Death, executed: October 28, 1948 # Paul Wellnitz, ''SS Rottenführer'': Death, executed: October 28, 1948 # Karl Zurell, ''SS Rottenführer'': Death, executed: October 28, 1948 # Erich Thun, ''SS Unterscharführer'': Life imprisonment # Wilhelm Vogler, ''SS Hauptsturmführer'': 15 years imprisonment # Eduard Zerlin, ''SS
Unterscharführer ''Unterscharführer'' (, ) was a paramilitary rank of the Nazi Party used by the ''Schutzstaffel'' (SS) between 1934 and 1945. The SS rank was created after the Night of the Long Knives. That event caused an SS reorganisation and the creation of ...
'': 12 years imprisonment # Oskar Gottchau, ''SS Unterscharführer'': 10 years imprisonment # Adolf Grams, ''SS Rottenführer'': 10 years imprisonment # Emil Wenzel, ''SS Unterscharführer'': 10 years imprisonment # Werner Wöllnitz, ''SS Rottenführer'': 10 years imprisonment # Johannes Görtz, ''SS Unterscharführer'': 8 years imprisonment # Karl Reger, ''SS
Scharführer ''Scharführer'' (, ) was a title or rank used in early 20th Century German military terminology. In German, ''Schar'' was one term for the smallest sub-unit, equivalent to (for example) a "troop" , " squad", or "section". The word ''führer'' ...
'': 8 years imprisonment # Martin Stage, ''SS Scharführer'': 8 years imprisonment # Adalbert Wolter, ''SS Unterscharführer'': 8 years imprisonment # Josef Wennhardt, ''SS Scharführer'': 8 years imprisonment # Hugo Ziehm, ''SS Scharführer'': 3 years imprisonment # Walter Englert, ''SS Scharführer'': 3 years imprisonment # Alfred Nikolaysen, ''Kapo'': Death, executed: October 28, 1948


Third Stutthof trial

The third trial was held from November 5, 1947, to November 10, 1947, before a Polish Special Criminal Court. Arraigned 20 ex-officials and guards were judged; nineteen were found guilty, and one was acquitted.Nunca Mas (2007)
Campo de Concentracion Stutthof, Polonia (Concentration Camp Stutthof, Poland).
History of the Camp. Subcamps. Trials. Women of the SS. Additional documents.


Verdicts in the third trial

# Karl Meinck, ''SS Obersturmführer'': 12 years imprisonment # Gustav Eberle, ''SS Hauptscharführer'': 10 years imprisonment # Erich Jassen, ''SS Hauptscharführer'': 10 years imprisonment # Adolf Klaffke, ''SS Oberscharführer'': 10 years imprisonment # Otto Schneider, ''SS Unterscharführer'': 10 years imprisonment # Otto Welke, ''SS Sturmscharführer'': 10 years imprisonment # Willy Witt, ''SS Unterscharführer'': 10 years imprisonment # Alfred Tissler, ''SS Rottenführer'': 5 years imprisonment # Johann Lichtner, ''SS Hauptscharführer'': 5 years imprisonment # Ernst Thulke, ''SS Rottenführer'': 5 years imprisonment # Heinz Löwen, ''SS Scharführer'': 5 years imprisonment # Erich Stampniok, ''SS Unterscharführer'': 5 years imprisonment # Hans Möhrke, ''SS Sturmscharführer'': 4 years imprisonment # Harry Müller, ''SS Unterscharführer'': 4 years imprisonment # Richard Timm, ''SS Hauptscharführer'': 4 years imprisonment # Nikolaus Dirnberger, ''SS Scharführer'': 4 years imprisonment # Friedrich Tessmer, ''SS Scharführer'': 4 years imprisonment # Johann Sporer, ''SS Unterscharführer'': 4 years imprisonment # Nikolai Klawan, ''SS Scharführer'': 3 years imprisonment # Hans Tolksdorf, ''SS Oberscharführer'': Not guilty


Fourth Stutthof trial

The fourth trial was also held before a Polish Special Criminal Court, from November 19, 1947, to November 29, 1947. Arraigned 27 ex-officials and guards were judged; 26 were found guilty, and one was acquitted.


Verdicts in the fourth trial

# Willi Buth, ''SS Hauptscharführer'': Death, executed: January 10, 1949 # Albert Weckmüller, ''SS Hauptsturmführer'': 15 years imprisonment # Rudolf Berg, ''SS Scharführer'': 10 years imprisonment # Fritz Glawe, ''SS Unterscharführer'': 10 years imprisonment # Horst Köpke, ''SS Unterscharführer'': 10 years imprisonment # Emil Lascheit, ''SS Sturmscharführer'': 10 years imprisonment # Kurt Reduhn, ''SS Unterscharführer'': 10 years imprisonment # Josef Stahl, ''SS Unterscharführer'': 10 years imprisonment # Waldemar Henke, ''SS Obersturmführer'': 5 years imprisonment # Gustav Kautz, ''SS Unterscharführer'': 5 years imprisonment # Hermann Link, ''SS Scharführer'': 5 years imprisonment # Erich Mertens, ''SS Oberscharführer'': 5 years imprisonment # Martin Pentz, ''SS Scharführer'': 5 years imprisonment # Johann Pfister, ''SS Rottenführer'': 5 years imprisonment # Johannes Wall, ''SS Sturmscharführer'': 5 years imprisonment # Richard Akolt, ''SS Rottenführer'': 3 years imprisonment # Anton Kniffke, ''SS Scharführer'': 3 years imprisonment # Christof Schwarz, ''SS Hauptsturmführer'': 3 years imprisonment # Gustav Brodowski, ''SS Rottenführer'': 7 months' imprisonment # Walter Ringewald, ''SS Oberscharfuhrer'': 7 months' imprisonment # Richard Wohlfeil, ''SS Hauptscharführer'': 7 months' imprisonment # Johann Wrobel, ''SS Oberscharführer'': 7 months' imprisonment # Ernst Knappert, ''SS Rottenführer'': 7 months' imprisonment # Bernard Eckermann, ''SS Oberscharführer'': 7 months' imprisonment # Leopold Baumgartner, ''SS Oberscharführer'': 7 months' imprisonment # Emil Paul, ''SS Unterscharführer'': 7 months' imprisonment # Franz Spillmann, ''Kapo'': Not guilty


Fifth and sixth trials

The last two trials in Poland concerning two Stutthof concentration camp officials took place four years apart. In 1949, ''SS-Hauptsturmführer'' Hans Jacobi, the commandant of Stutthof subcamps forming ''Baukommando Weichsel'' or ''OT Thorn'' (
Organisation Todt Organisation Todt (OT; ) was a civil and military engineering organisation in Nazi Germany from 1933 to 1945, named for its founder, Fritz Todt, an engineer and senior Nazi. The organisation was responsible for a huge range of engineering pr ...
Thorn) for women digging anti-tank ditches, was tried before the criminal court in
Toruń )'' , image_skyline = , image_caption = , image_flag = POL Toruń flag.svg , image_shield = POL Toruń COA.svg , nickname = City of Angels, Gingerbread city, Copernicus Town , pushpin_map = Kuyavian-Pom ...
and sentenced to three years in prison. In 1953 the court in Gdańsk tried SS-man Bielawa (''SS Rottenführer'' Paul Bielawa, a prisoner guard from the 3rd company in Stutthof between 1941–45) and sentenced him to twelve years. SS-Rottenführer Emil Strehlau was sentenced by the court in Torun (Wloclawek) on April 23, 1948, to death for war crimes. He was executed November 8 in Wloclawek


Later trials

In mid-1950s, a number of
Nazi concentration camp commandant The commandant (german: KZ-Kommandant, Lagerkommandant) was the chief commanding position within the SS service of a Nazi concentration camp. He held the highest rank and was the most important member of the camp unit. The commandant directed ...
s were sentenced to jail for supervising the murder of Jewish prisoners in gas chambers between 1942–1944, including , and . In 2017, the prosecution of two former Stutthof camp guards from Borken and
Wuppertal Wuppertal (; "''Wupper Dale''") is, with a population of approximately 355,000, the seventh-largest city in North Rhine-Westphalia as well as the 17th-largest city of Germany. It was founded in 1929 by the merger of the cities and tow ...
commenced. The Wuppertal accused denied the allegations and declared that he was not present during the killings, and did not notice anything about it. In November 2018, Johann Rehbogen from Borken was tried in court for serving at Stutthof camp from June 1942 to September 1944. In December 2018, the trial was suspended, since the convict had to be hospitalized for serious heart and kidney problems. On February 25, 2019, it was announced that the trial is unlikely to be restarted due to the poor health conditions of the defendant. In October 2019, Bruno Dey from Hamburg was accused of contributing to the killings of 5,230 prisoners at Stutthof camp between 1944 and 1945. However, he was tried in a juvenile court due to being about 17 at that time. In July 2020, he was convicted of 5,232 counts of accessory to murder by the Hamburg state court, and was also convicted of one count of accessory to attempted murder. In 2021, Irmgard Furchner a German former concentration camp secretary and stenographer at Stutthof, where she worked for camp commandant
Paul-Werner Hoppe Paul-Werner Hoppe (28 February 1910 – 15 July 1974) was an SS-Obersturmbannführer (lieutenant colonel) and was the commandant of Stutthof concentration camp from September 1942 until April 1945. Hoppe joined the Nazi Party with membership ...
, was charged with 11,412 counts of accessory to murder and 18 additional counts of accessory to attempted murder, On December 20, 2022 she was found guilty and sentenced to a suspended jail term of two years.


See also

*
Nuremberg trials The Nuremberg trials were held by the Allies of World War II, Allies against representatives of the defeated Nazi Germany, for plotting and carrying out invasions of other countries, and other crimes, in World War II. Between 1939 and 1945 ...
of the 23 most important leaders of the
Third Reich Nazi Germany (lit. "National Socialist State"), ' (lit. "Nazi State") for short; also ' (lit. "National Socialist Germany") (officially known as the German Reich from 1933 until 1943, and the Greater German Reich from 1943 to 1945) was ...
, 1945–1946 * Dachau trials held within the walls of the former
Dachau concentration camp , , commandant = List of commandants , known for = , location = Upper Bavaria, Southern Germany , built by = Germany , operated by = ''Schutzstaffel'' (SS) , original use = Political prison , construction ...
, 1945–1948 *
Sobibór trial The Sobibor trial was a 1965–66 judicial trial in the West German prosecution of SS officers who had worked at Sobibor extermination camp; it was held in Hagen. It was one of a series of similar war crime trials held during the early and mid-1 ...
held in Hagen, Germany in 1965, concerning the
Sobibór extermination camp Sobibor (, Polish: ) was an extermination camp built and operated by Nazi Germany as part of Operation Reinhard. It was located in the forest near the village of Żłobek Duży in the General Government region of German-occupied Poland. As a ...
*
Belzec trial The Belzec trial (german: Belzec-Prozess, pl, proces Bełżec) in the mid-1960s was a war crimes trial of eight former SS members of Bełżec extermination camp. The trial was held at the 1st Munich District Court (''Landgericht München I'') and ...
before the 1st
Munich Munich ( ; german: München ; bar, Minga ) is the capital and most populous city of the States of Germany, German state of Bavaria. With a population of 1,558,395 inhabitants as of 31 July 2020, it is the List of cities in Germany by popu ...
District Court in the mid-1960s, eight SS-men of the Bełżec extermination camp *
Majdanek trials The Majdanek trials were a series of consecutive war-crime trials held in Poland and in Germany during and after World War II, constituting the overall longest Nazi war crimes trial in history spanning over 30 years. The first judicial trial of ...
, the longest Nazi war crimes trial in history, spanning over 30 years *
Chełmno trials The Chełmno trials were a series of consecutive war-crime trials of the Chełmno extermination camp personnel, held in Poland and in Germany following World War II. The cases were decided almost twenty years apart. The first judicial trial of t ...
of the
Chełmno extermination camp , known for = , location = Near Chełmno nad Nerem, ''Reichsgau Wartheland'' (German-occupied Poland) , built by = , operated by = , commandant = Herbert Lange, Christian Wirth , original use = , construction = , in operatio ...
personnel, held in Poland and in Germany. The cases were decided almost twenty years apart


References

* Several authors
Monografia KL Stutthof (KL Stutthof monograph)
(Internet Archive). Organization, Prisoners, Subcamps, Extermination, Responsibility. ''Contributing writers:'' Bogdan Chrzanowski, Konrad Ciechanowski, Danuta Drywa, Ewa Ferenc,
Andrzej Gąsiorowski Prof. Dr. hab. Andrzej Gąsiorowski (born in 1950) is a research scientist at the Stutthof concentration camp Museum in Sztutowo, Professor in the Institute of Politology, Faculty of Social Sciences of the Gdańsk University, awarded the title ...
, Mirosław Gliński, Janina Grabowska, Elżbieta Grot, Marek Orski, and Krzysztof Steyer.


External links

*{{Commonscatinline Holocaust trials Poland–Soviet Union relations Trials in Poland