Studentenverbindung
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(; often referred to as Verbindung) is the
umbrella term In linguistics, semantics, general semantics, and ontologies, hyponymy () is a semantic relation between a hyponym denoting a subtype and a hypernym or hyperonym (sometimes called umbrella term or blanket term) denoting a supertype. In other wor ...
for many different kinds of
fraternity A fraternity (from Latin language, Latin ''wiktionary:frater, frater'': "brother (Christian), brother"; whence, "wiktionary:brotherhood, brotherhood") or fraternal organization is an organization, society, club (organization), club or fraternal ...
-type associations in German-speaking countries, including
Corps Corps (; plural ''corps'' ; from French , from the Latin "body") is a term used for several different kinds of organization. A military innovation by Napoleon I, the formation was first named as such in 1805. The size of a corps varies great ...
, , , , and Catholic fraternities. Worldwide, there are over 1,600 , about a thousand in Germany, with a total of over 190,000 members. In them, students spend their university years in an organized community, whose members stay connected even after graduation. A goal of this lifelong bond () is to create contacts and friendships over many generations and to facilitate networking. The is very important for the longevity of these networks. Their autonomous and grassroots democratic is also an important similarity of all student corporations. Apart from the and the , every Studentenverbindung also has a so-called (borrowed French for 'how'). The is a body of rules that organize various different aspects of fraternity life such as the ,
academic fencing Academic fencing (german: link=no, akademisches Fechten) or is the traditional kind of fencing practiced by some student corporations () in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Latvia, Estonia, and, to a minor extent, in Belgium, Lithuania, and Pol ...
(), and general rules of conduct. Fraternities of this particular type are present in
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,
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,
Switzerland ). Swiss law does not designate a ''capital'' as such, but the federal parliament and government are installed in Bern, while other federal institutions, such as the federal courts, are in other cities (Bellinzona, Lausanne, Luzern, Neuchâtel ...
,
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,
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,
Latvia Latvia ( or ; lv, Latvija ; ltg, Latveja; liv, Leţmō), officially the Republic of Latvia ( lv, Latvijas Republika, links=no, ltg, Latvejas Republika, links=no, liv, Leţmō Vabāmō, links=no), is a country in the Baltic region of ...
,
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, (formerly) German or German-speaking areas and other smaller communities in Europe, and
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. Less than 1% of all current students and living
alumni Alumni (singular: alumnus (masculine) or alumna (feminine)) are former students of a school, college, or university who have either attended or graduated in some fashion from the institution. The feminine plural alumnae is sometimes used for grou ...
in Germany are active members of a .wdr.de
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Organization

Studentenverbindungen consist of active members who are students currently enrolled at a university, and the graduated ''Alte Herren'' or ''Altherren'' (Elder Gentlemen or alumni) / ''Hohe Damen'' (High Ladies) that were once active in these corporations and now provide guidance and the necessary financial backing. The active students are commonly divided into four groups, with the '' Fuchs'' or ''Renonce'' (German for ''fox'', the pledges), the ''Burschen'' (German for ''fellow'', full members), and the inactive ''Burschen'' (having been members for a set time limit, usually three or four semesters) forming the fraternity's active core. The fourth group, the ''Chargen'' are ''Burschen'' elected by the former groups' democratic vote and entitled to decide over certain situations of everyday fraternity life. Common ''Chargierte'' are the ''Senior'' (signing his name with an ''x'' at the end e.g. ''Mustermann Z! x''), ''Consenior'' (xx) and the ''Drittchargierter'', or often also called ''Scriptor'' (xxx). The ''Senior's'' task is mainly to represent the fraternity to the outside and to lead it. The ''Consenior'' assists the ''Senior'' but mainly focuses on imparting the
fencing Fencing is a group of three related combat sports. The three disciplines in modern fencing are the foil, the épée, and the sabre (also ''saber''); winning points are made through the weapon's contact with an opponent. A fourth discipline, s ...
practice, the organization of fraternity events and the constant contact to fellow female students. Whilst the ''Drittchargierter'' is in charge of mail correspondence, finance and diplomacy. Another ''Function'' often referred to as a Charge (Chargierter) is the so-called ''Fuchsmajor''. He is in charge of the Füchse and teaches them everything they need to know in fraternity life, except for fencing. Studentenverbindungen, specially older ones, often possess large mansions, the Verbindungshaus, in which active members live. It usually consists of a
dormitory A dormitory (originated from the Latin word ''dormitorium'', often abbreviated to dorm) is a building primarily providing sleeping and residential quarters for large numbers of people such as boarding school, high school, college or university s ...
and common rooms for festivities, most notably the ''Kneipe'', celebrations on a regular basis involving student songs and other traditions. One of the many benefits of joining a fraternity in Germany is the especially low pricing of the often high-quality rooms. Because ''Studentenverbindungen'' are much less prevalent in campus life in comparison to US fraternities, some actively try to recruit new members through these low-priced rooms. After a certain period, the ''Fuchsenzeit'', these new members have the opportunity to learn the traditions. After successful completion of all necessary tests and examinations they are usually accepted as full members. Once finished with higher education and having started a career, the inactive ''Burschen'' are asked to resign from the fraternity's core members and become ''Alte Herren'' or ''Philister''. This involves losing influence in active fraternity life and in voting in the core fraternity's democratic process, allowing younger generations to take their place. Major decisions, though, are still made by an annual Convent where every member, student or not, has at least one vote; the ''Alte Herren Commission'' (short ''AHC'') which represent all ''Alte Herren'' usually have double votes and veto rights. They also take care of the financial overview and supervising the ''Verbindungshaus''. Furthermore, all ''Alte Herren'' are commonly asked to pay a certain annual sum to help sustain the fraternity fiscally, to actively participate in democratic decisions concerning only ''Alte Herren'', and to pay regular visits to the fraternity's festivities. A notable characteristic of this structure is that the relationship between active members and ''Alte Herren'' is usually so close that even the youngest members are asked to address even their most decorated ''Alte Herren'' by ''Du'', the intimate form of addressing someone in German, or even by their first names. This commonly includes referring to one another as "''Verbindungs-bruder''" (''Brother''). As it is possible for any ''Verbindung'' to forge treaties with another, this may also be extended to members of other fraternities. This relationship between the old and the young allows young members to learn how to bear responsibilities themselves.


Mensur

To laymen, the most well-known tradition of ''Studentenverbindungen'' is the ''
Mensur Academic fencing (german: link=no, akademisches Fechten) or is the traditional kind of fencing practiced by some student corporations () in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Latvia, Estonia, and, to a minor extent, in Belgium, Lithuania, and Pol ...
'', a special form of very strictly regulated, fixed-stance fencing ritual. The ''Mensur'' is practised with sharp blades, and although the body is well-protected, it allows for deep (cosmetic) facial and cranial wounds, which often result in a scar which is called
Schmiss Dueling scars (german: link=no, Schmisse) have been seen as a "badge of honour" since as early as 1825. Known variously as " scars", "the bragging scar", "smite", "" or "", dueling scars were popular amongst upper-class Austrians and Germans invo ...
. The ''Schmiss'' was once regarded as the passport to a better future, because the ''Mensur'' strives to educate physical and mental strength by exposing the combatants to a rare and extreme situation. In modern times, opinions differ, although the principle stays the same: whereas one would formerly engage in a ''Mensur'' to be hit, many fencing students of today will rather engage in combat in order to prove their competence by not being wounded, instead focusing on reinforcing the bond between members of the fraternity. Some fraternities that do not practice academic fencing have other rituals that are meant to substitute this ritual of group dynamics, such as extreme hiking. While the ''Mensur'' is the most central principle to some ''Verbindungen'', especially of the ''
Corps Corps (; plural ''corps'' ; from French , from the Latin "body") is a term used for several different kinds of organization. A military innovation by Napoleon I, the formation was first named as such in 1805. The size of a corps varies great ...
'', ''
Burschenschaft A Burschenschaft (; sometimes abbreviated in the German ''Burschenschaft'' jargon; plural: ) is one of the traditional (student associations) of Germany, Austria, and Chile (the latter due to German cultural influence). Burschenschaften were fo ...
en'' and Landsmannschaften, these organizations require their members to fence with each other. Other ''Verbindungen'' allow their members to fence voluntarily, but the majority of these now forbid their members to fence. In particular, Christian fraternities decline the ''Mensur'' from general ethical perspectives, with Catholic fraternities even being formally restricted on the ground of the 5th commandment ''"You shall not kill"'', which includes the integrity of the God-given body in general.


Hallmarks


Couleur

Visually, the most discerning characteristic of many Studentenverbindungen is the so-called ''Couleur'', which can consist of anything from a small part of ribbon worn over the belt, to elaborate uniforms with riding boots, sabers, and colorful cavalry jackets, depending on circumstances and tradition. Most commonly, a thin sash displaying (usually) three distinctive colors is worn in everyday life, this is called ''Band''. Although this display was common in the past ( Wilhelmine Period) it is not as common at German universities anymore. Color-wearing ("farbentragend") Studentenverbindungen are those whose members that wear a ''Band'' a headwear with their fraternities colors. Many Burschenschaften wear the color combination
Black-Red-Gold The national colours of the Federal Republic of Germany are officially black, red, and gold, defined with the adoption of the West German flag as a tricolour with these colours in 1949. As Germany was divided into West Germany and East Germany ...
as a historical symbol for German unity. These colors were first worn by the
Urburschenschaft The Urburschenschaft () was the first ''Burschenschaft'', one traditional form of German student fraternities. It was founded in 1815 in Jena, Thuringia, in Germany. As colours, following their initial use in a state flag by the elder Reuss ...
in 1815. There are also color-carrying or -bearing ("farbenführend") Verbindungen, while their members do not wear a sash their colors are often represented in their uniforms and other Couleur, like flags.


File:Rhenanenzirkel.png,
Corps Rhenania Heidelberg Corps Rhenania Heidelberg is a member Corps of the Kösener Senioren-Convents-Verband, the oldest association of student fraternities in Germany, Austria and Switzerland. Corps Rhenania is "pflichtschlagend", which refers to the fact that it requir ...
File:Zirkel Ascania Köln.png, Burschenschaft Ascania Köln File:Zirkel_der_Wingolfverbindung_Chattia_zu_Aachen.svg, Chattia Aachen File:Zirkel der Hubertia Freiburg.jpg, Corps Hubertia Freiburg File:Zirkel Marchia.tif, K.D.St.V. Marchia ( Breslau)
Aachen Aachen ( ; ; Aachen dialect: ''Oche'' ; French and traditional English: Aix-la-Chapelle; or ''Aquisgranum''; nl, Aken ; Polish: Akwizgran) is, with around 249,000 inhabitants, the 13th-largest city in North Rhine-Westphalia, and the 28th- ...
File:Zirkel wiki glatt.JPG, Burschenschaft Germania
Braunschweig Braunschweig () or Brunswick ( , from Low German ''Brunswiek'' , Braunschweig dialect: ''Bronswiek'') is a city in Lower Saxony, Germany, north of the Harz Mountains at the farthest navigable point of the river Oker, which connects it to the Nor ...
Another visual hallmark is the , a
monogram A monogram is a motif made by overlapping or combining two or more letters or other graphemes to form one symbol. Monograms are often made by combining the initials of an individual or a company, used as recognizable symbols or logos. A series o ...
containing the fraternity's initials and the letters ''v'', ''c'', and ''f'' for the Latin words ('live, grow, flourish') or ('long live the circle of brothers'). In fraternity documents, members sign their names with a after their signature. have their origin in abbreviations, by student orders of the 18th century, to show their affiliation in written documents. Today, are often used on clothing or other personal items. Sometimes, the fraternity's coat of arms is also incorporated into objects, such as headgear or the (fencing
rapier A rapier () or is a type of sword with a slender and sharply-pointed two-edged blade that was popular in Western Europe, both for civilian use (dueling and self-defense) and as a military side arm, throughout the 16th and 17th centuries. Impor ...
). Many fraternity members can be identified through their , or by less obvious codes such as a certain style of dressing, e.g. Timberland boots and
polo shirt A polo shirt, tennis shirt, golf shirt, or chukker shirt is a form of shirt with a collar. Polo shirts are usually short sleeved but can be long; they were used by polo players originally in India in 1859 and in Great Britain during the 1920s. ...
s. Furthermore, rare figures of speech can give the hint that a person is a member of a .


Coat of arms

Corps Rhenania Heidelberg Vollwappen.jpg,
Corps Rhenania Heidelberg Corps Rhenania Heidelberg is a member Corps of the Kösener Senioren-Convents-Verband, the oldest association of student fraternities in Germany, Austria and Switzerland. Corps Rhenania is "pflichtschlagend", which refers to the fact that it requir ...
R-F!Wappen.png, K.D.St.V. Rheno-Franconia München 1912-Mch.png, Münchener Wingolf Wappen des Corps Hubertia Freiburg.jpg, Corps Hubertia Freiburg Wapenschild K.A.V. Lovania Leuven.png, K.A.V. Lovania Leuven Raczeks (Wappen).jpg, Alte Breslauer Burschenschaft der Raczeks
Studentenverbindungen's coats of arms do not strictly follow
heraldic Heraldry is a discipline relating to the design, display and study of armorial bearings (known as armory), as well as related disciplines, such as vexillology, together with the study of ceremony, rank and pedigree. Armory, the best-known branc ...
rules, their use started around the year 1800. The escutcheon is often divided in four, Burschenschaften's most commonly by a cross. These fields are filled with various non heraldic symbols, for example with the fraternity's colors, the Zirkel, allusions to their university or city and other regional heraldic elements, also symbols for friendship and eternity, that are taken from
Freemasons Freemasonry or Masonry refers to fraternal organisations that trace their origins to the local guilds of stonemasons that, from the end of the 13th century, regulated the qualifications of stonemasons and their interaction with authorities ...
and antiquity.


Kneipe

More elaborate uniforms are usually worn at a ''Kneipe'' or, more formally, '' Commers'', a kind of gathering only still preserved at ''Studentenverbindungen''. Such events can happen regularly but specially during holidays, for example to celebrate Christmas, to commemorate a deceased Verbindungs-brother, or in remembrance of historic events or important dates in the fraternity's history e.g. the founding day of the fraternity (''Stiftungstagskneipe''). During these gatherings, the crowd of members and guests present are presided over by the ''Chargierte'' (see above), with the ''Senior'' conducting the gathering, executing certain rituals, from as simple as welcoming guests, holding speeches to performing the so-called ''Landesvater'' ("father of the country"). The latter is a ceremonial where a sabre is pierced through the ''Couleur''-bearing headgear of the participants in a complex ritual, accompanied by a ceremonial chant. While such rituals are only performed on the most solemn of occasions and thus very rare, a ''Kneipe'' commonly involves the lighter sides of life, such as rampant beer consumption and uninhibited singing of traditional student songs, of which some can be bawdy for the standards of time. Thus, this allows to get to know otherwise daunting members on a personal level due to the relaxed atmosphere at these gatherings.


History


Early history

When the first universities formed in
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,
Bologna Bologna (, , ; egl, label= Emilian, Bulåggna ; lat, Bononia) is the capital and largest city of the Emilia-Romagna region in Northern Italy. It is the seventh most populous city in Italy with about 400,000 inhabitants and 150 different nat ...
, and
Salerno Salerno (, , ; nap, label= Salernitano, Saliernë, ) is an ancient city and ''comune'' in Campania (southwestern Italy) and is the capital of the namesake province, being the second largest city in the region by number of inhabitants, after ...
around the 12th century, Europe was divided into a large number of small states, which reflected itself in the composition of the student body. To ensure an equal influence on the university's decisions, the students and teachers began to form '' nationes'', with one ''nation'' for each native state of its members. This basic tradition was continued for a long time and still survives in
Sweden Sweden, formally the Kingdom of Sweden,The United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names states that the country's formal name is the Kingdom of SwedenUNGEGN World Geographical Names, Sweden./ref> is a Nordic country located on ...
and
Finland Finland ( fi, Suomi ; sv, Finland ), officially the Republic of Finland (; ), is a Nordic country in Northern Europe. It shares land borders with Sweden to the northwest, Norway to the north, and Russia to the east, with the Gulf of B ...
to the present day. When the first universities of the
Holy Roman Empire The Holy Roman Empire was a Polity, political entity in Western Europe, Western, Central Europe, Central, and Southern Europe that developed during the Early Middle Ages and continued until its Dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, dissolution i ...
were founded in
Prague Prague ( ; cs, Praha ; german: Prag, ; la, Praga) is the capital and largest city in the Czech Republic, and the historical capital of Bohemia. On the Vltava river, Prague is home to about 1.3 million people. The city has a temperate ...
(1348),
Vienna en, Viennese , iso_code = AT-9 , registration_plate = W , postal_code_type = Postal code , postal_code = , timezone = CET , utc_offset = +1 , timezone_DST ...
, and
Heidelberg Heidelberg (; Palatine German language, Palatine German: ''Heidlberg'') is a city in the States of Germany, German state of Baden-Württemberg, situated on the river Neckar in south-west Germany. As of the 2016 census, its population was 159,914 ...
in the 14th century, they established a similar system, the '' Burse'' (From Latin "bursa" meaning "coin purse", from which ''Bursche'' stems, for the Burse's collective funds). Students were forced to live in a dorm assigned by their native state and soon started taking up formal signs, often colorful clothing, to display their membership in a ''Burse''. This continues in the colored sashes worn by modern ''Studentenverbindungen''. When the first duels were fought is not known exactly, because students were allowed to carry
épée The ( or , ), sometimes spelled epee in English, is the largest and heaviest of the three weapons used in the sport of fencing. The modern derives from the 19th-century , a weapon which itself derives from the French small sword. This contains ...
s or
sabers A sabre (French: sabʁ or saber in American English) is a type of backsword with a curved blade associated with the light cavalry of the early modern and Napoleonic periods. Originally associated with Central European cavalry such as the ...
to be able to protect themselves and to deal with confrontations between rival groups (''Raufduell''). In the 17th century, the respective sovereigns gained increasing control over "their" ''Burse'', and the first fraternities were formally formed, calling themselves ''Landsmannschaften'', giving themselves Latin names according to their country of origin (''Borussia'' for
Prussia Prussia, , Old Prussian: ''Prūsa'' or ''Prūsija'' was a German state on the southeast coast of the Baltic Sea. It formed the German Empire under Prussian rule when it united the German states in 1871. It was ''de facto'' dissolved by an em ...
, ''Guestphalia'' for
Westphalia Westphalia (; german: Westfalen ; nds, Westfalen ) is a region of northwestern Germany and one of the three historic parts of the state of North Rhine-Westphalia. It has an area of and 7.9 million inhabitants. The territory of the regio ...
, etc.) and introducing ''Fuchs'' and ''Bursche'' as status designations. Lifelong membership, though, was not known. During this period, the regulated duel was developed, accompanied by the idea to defend one's honor with a weapon and a strict code to guide the confrontation. This potentially lethal tradition continued until 1933 in Germany, with being so strict at some points, that e.g. a Prussian officer could be expelled if he was not willing to demand or give satisfaction. As the ''Landsmannschaften'' faded during the early 1800s, secret organizations known as ''Studentenorden'' (student orders) took their place and introduced elaborate rituals, formal oaths of membership, a strict ''constitutio'' to regulate internal behavior, and cryptic symbols to identify members. All of these traditions are still known and actively practised in today's fraternities. The ''Studentenorden'', though, were heavily monitored by the then- absolutist government, as many of their traditions were derived from
freemason Freemasonry or Masonry refers to fraternal organisations that trace their origins to the local guilds of stonemasons that, from the end of the 13th century, regulated the qualifications of stonemasons and their interaction with authorities ...
or
Illuminati The Illuminati (; plural of Latin ''illuminatus'', 'enlightened') is a name given to several groups, both real and fictitious. Historically, the name usually refers to the Bavarian Illuminati, an Enlightenment-era secret society founded on ...
lodges, and were subsequently banned at the end of the 18th century.


Early 19th century

As ''Studentenorden'' were dissolved and their former members sought a possibility to continue their traditions, they began rebuilding a similar form of community under the then-common and insuspicious French word "''
Corps Corps (; plural ''corps'' ; from French , from the Latin "body") is a term used for several different kinds of organization. A military innovation by Napoleon I, the formation was first named as such in 1805. The size of a corps varies great ...
''". Symbols, oaths, regulations and rituals were continued from ''Studentenorden'' tradition (although the secrecy was omitted for longevity's sake), and the Latin names, status designations and affiliation with a country of origin were copied from the now-extinct ''Landsmannschaften''. A new characteristic was the heavy influence of
German idealism German idealism was a philosophical movement that emerged in Germany in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. It developed out of the work of Immanuel Kant in the 1780s and 1790s, and was closely linked both with Romanticism and the revolutionary ...
, in particular the works of
Kant Immanuel Kant (, , ; 22 April 1724 – 12 February 1804) was a German Philosophy, philosopher and one of the central Age of Enlightenment, Enlightenment thinkers. Born in Königsberg, Kant's comprehensive and systematic works in epistemolo ...
and
Fichte Johann Gottlieb Fichte (; ; 19 May 1762 – 29 January 1814) was a German philosopher who became a founding figure of the philosophical movement known as German idealism, which developed from the theoretical and ethical writings of Immanuel Ka ...
. This resulted in a strong focus on forming young members to be strong, upright and honorable, in order for the nation's "best and brightest" to spread these ideas throughout society. Political, especially geopolitical activities of ''Corps'' as a whole were actively discouraged, as social commitment was seen as more promising and less controversial. Another characteristic was to unify all of a city's, and ultimately Germany's, ''Corps'' under an umbrella organization and to vote on common rules and principles for each ''Corps'' to abide by. Hence the KSCV was created in 1848. The oldest, still existing ''Studentenverbindung'', Corps Guestphalia Halle established in 1789, was a founding member.


''Burschenschaft'' and rebellion against aristocracy

The ''Corps'' soon saw themselves heavily confronted by the ''Burschenschaft'', which was first founded in 1815. Sparked by the
nationalist Nationalism is an idea and movement that holds that the nation should be congruent with the state. As a movement, nationalism tends to promote the interests of a particular nation (as in a group of people), Smith, Anthony. ''Nationalism: The ...
sentiment after the
Napoleonic wars The Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815) were a series of major global conflicts pitting the French Empire and its allies, led by Napoleon I, against a fluctuating array of European states formed into various coalitions. It produced a period of Fren ...
, the members of the latter perceived the traditional forms of fraternities, who were still heavily affiliated with their state of origin, to be
reactionary In political science, a reactionary or a reactionist is a person who holds political views that favor a return to the ''status quo ante'', the previous political state of society, which that person believes possessed positive characteristics abse ...
and
elitist Elitism is the belief or notion that individuals who form an elite—a select group of people perceived as having an intrinsic quality, high intellect, wealth, power, notability, special skills, or experience—are more likely to be construc ...
. Thus, they organized themselves into what was pictured as a single fraternity spanning all states of German language, allowing the students to coordinate a nationalist revolution; i.e. a revolution to unify Germany and to abolish all princedoms. From the beginning, they were a dedicated political organization, in contrast to the ''Corps''. This early attempt failed in 1819 when the ''Burschenschaft'' was fragmented, but the sentiment prevailed. At this occasion, the modern German colors are mentioned for the first time in popular culture, in a song by August Daniel von Binzer citing the colors of the Burschenschaft:


Karlsbad Decrees

In the same year, due to general antisemitism prevalent in any social class, massive
antisemitic Antisemitism (also spelled anti-semitism or anti-Semitism) is hostility to, prejudice towards, or discrimination against Jews. A person who holds such positions is called an antisemite. Antisemitism is considered to be a form of racism. Antis ...
protests, mainly fueled by students, craftsmen and traders, (see
Hep-Hep riots The Hep-Hep riots from August to October 1819 were pogroms against Ashkenazi Jews, beginning in the Kingdom of Bavaria, during the period of Jewish emancipation in the German Confederation. The antisemitic communal violence began on August 2, 181 ...
) swept the German-speaking states, injuring and killing many. As a result, by the
Karlsbad Decrees The Carlsbad Decrees (german: Karlsbader Beschlüsse) were a set of reactionary restrictions introduced in the states of the German Confederation by resolution of the Bundesversammlung on 20 September 1819 after a conference held in the spa town ...
, any self-regulating student body was forcibly dissolved, severe
censorship Censorship is the suppression of speech, public communication, or other information. This may be done on the basis that such material is considered objectionable, harmful, sensitive, or "inconvenient". Censorship can be conducted by governments ...
and punishments were instituted, and government authority was significantly increased. This resulted in secret gatherings and smaller revolutionary acts, many of which are seen as the foundation for a German nation in today's world, such as the
Hambach festival The Hambacher Festival was a German national democratic festival celebrated from 27 May to 30 May 1832 at Hambach Castle, near Neustadt an der Weinstraße, in present-day Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany. The event was disguised as a nonpolitical co ...
in 1832, where the German colors flew as a flag for the first time, and the
Frankfurter Wachensturm The Frankfurter Wachensturm (German: charge of the Frankfurt guard house) on 3 April 1833 was a failed attempt to start a revolution in Germany. Events About 50 students attacked the soldiers and policemen of the Frankfurt Police offices '' Hau ...
in 1833, a failed attempt to take a large city's treasury to fund a revolution.


Revolution of 1848 and subsequent diversification

Tensions started to build, with short lived, illegal fraternities forming, being dissolved and reforming at all universities, peaking in the German
revolution of 1848 The Revolutions of 1848, known in some countries as the Springtime of the Peoples or the Springtime of Nations, were a series of political upheavals throughout Europe starting in 1848. It remains the most widespread revolutionary wave in Europea ...
in which many members of ''Studentenverbindungen'' took part. Although the unification of Germany, according to the principles of the ''Burschenschaft'' soon failed violently, the ''Studentenverbindungen'' had emancipated themselves, and many of the members of the first
Frankfurt parliament The Frankfurt Parliament (german: Frankfurter Nationalversammlung, literally ''Frankfurt National Assembly'') was the first freely elected parliament for all German states, including the German-populated areas of Austria-Hungary, elected on 1 Ma ...
were in fact ''Corps'' students or ''Burschenschaft'' members. Thus, the general concept flourished quickly, and soon, the ''Studentenverbindungen'' were no longer seen as clubs of young rowdies and revolutionaries, but as a valuable school for the future. This allowed ''Alte Herren'' to identify with the active members of their fraternities, and the idea of a lifelong commitment arose (''Lebensbundprinzip''). Soon, the first ''Stiftungsfeste'', annual festivities in celebration of the fraternity's founding, were celebrated, further cementing their standing. As increased liberty allowed it, a more regulated form of duel was conceived: The modern ''Mensur'', which strived to reduce lethality rates while still being able to fence. The former objective, though, was greatly impaired by treatment possibilities, with infected wounds posing a substantial risk. During this time, the first Christian fraternities were established by religious students missing belief as a basic principle of unity. Although some of them still took up weapons, many refused to do so from an ethical and religious standpoint. They often carried generic names, unifying themselves under an umbrella organization such as the
oecumenical Ecumenism (), also spelled oecumenism, is the concept and principle that Christians who belong to different Christian denominations should work together to develop closer relationships among their churches and promote Christian unity. The adjec ...
''Wingolf'' (with ''Wingolf Bonn'' being the first in 1841). When the Catholic religion was beginning to be repressed during the ''
Kulturkampf (, 'culture struggle') was the conflict that took place from 1872 to 1878 between the Catholic Church led by Pope Pius IX and the government of Prussia led by Otto von Bismarck. The main issues were clerical control of education and ecclesiastic ...
'', a large number of fraternities of Catholic belief were formed as a reaction. The first organization of decidedly Catholic origin was the ''Schweizerische Studentenverein'' ("Swiss students' union") in 1841. These catholic fraternities understood themselves as an important network to counteract the ''Kulturkampf''. In 1848, a Germany-wide association of Corps was founded in
Bad Kösen Bad Kösen () is a spa town on the Saale river in the small wine-growing region of Saale-Unstrut, Germany. It is a former municipality in the Burgenlandkreis district, in Saxony-Anhalt. Bad Kösen has a population of around 5,300. Since 1 Janu ...
, the so-called ''
Kösener Senioren-Convents-Verband The Kösener Senioren-Convents-Verband (abbreviation: KSCV) is the oldest association of German, Austrian and Swiss Studentenverbindungen. It comprises roughly 105 German, Austrian and a Flemish (Belgian), Hungarian and Swiss ''Corps'', all o ...
'', KSCV, (roughly, "the Kösen association of the committees of the first men in charge"). It consisted solely of the old ''Corps'' present at traditional liberal arts colleges and excluded those at technical colleges. In reaction, the '' Weinheimer Senioren Convent'', WSC, was established, which unified the latter. Today, the two umbrella organizations are tightly linked by a cooperation treaty, known as
Die Corps
'. The types of fraternities soon diversified, and formerly informal clubs, such as sports clubs influenced by the political ideas of
Turnvater Jahn (11August 177815October 1852) was a German gymnastics educator and Nationalism, nationalist whose writing is credited with the founding of the German gymnastics (Turners, Turner) movement as well as influencing the German Campaign of 1813, during ...
(''Turnerschaften''), academic choirs (''Sängerschaften''), and groups influenced by the
progressive movement Progressivism holds that it is possible to improve human societies through political action. As a political movement, progressivism seeks to advance the human condition through social reform based on purported advancements in science, techno ...
(''Landsmannschaften'' after the 17th century organizations) were reorganized. Each with their namesake as their central principle and idea of character building. Landsmannschaft Sorabia-Westfalen Münster is the oldest ''Studentenverbindung'' of modern constitution. It was founded in 1716 in the City of Leipzig. A notable exception from these self-centered principles is the VVDSt (''Verband der Vereine Deutscher Studenten'', "union of associations of German students"), which had a strict
antisemitic Antisemitism (also spelled anti-semitism or anti-Semitism) is hostility to, prejudice towards, or discrimination against Jews. A person who holds such positions is called an antisemite. Antisemitism is considered to be a form of racism. Antis ...
policy and was formed in 1881 as a decidedly political group. As a reaction, the first Jewish fraternities were established in the 1880s, prevailing until the
National Socialist Nazism ( ; german: Nazismus), the common name in English for National Socialism (german: Nationalsozialismus, ), is the far-right totalitarian political ideology and practices associated with Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party (NSDAP) in Na ...
regime.
Theodor Herzl Theodor Herzl; hu, Herzl Tivadar; Hebrew name given at his brit milah: Binyamin Ze'ev (2 May 1860 – 3 July 1904) was an Austro-Hungarian Jewish lawyer, journalist, playwright, political activist, and writer who was the father of modern p ...
, the founder of
zionism Zionism ( he, צִיּוֹנוּת ''Tsiyyonut'' after ''Zion'') is a Nationalism, nationalist movement that espouses the establishment of, and support for a homeland for the Jewish people centered in the area roughly corresponding to what is ...
and a former ''Burschenschaft'' student, was soon made an honorary member in many of these fraternities. Furthermore, Jewish fraternities were heavily focused on emancipating themselves through
duel A duel is an arranged engagement in combat between two people, with matched weapons, in accordance with agreed-upon Code duello, rules. During the 17th and 18th centuries (and earlier), duels were mostly single combats fought with swords (the r ...
and ''
Mensur Academic fencing (german: link=no, akademisches Fechten) or is the traditional kind of fencing practiced by some student corporations () in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Latvia, Estonia, and, to a minor extent, in Belgium, Lithuania, and Pol ...
.'' Finally, around the break of the century, women were admitted to visit universities, unifying to sororities in 1899. The first such organization was the ''Club der Namenlosen'' ("club of the nameless"), that was soon renamed to ''Verein Studierender Frauen Deutschlands Hilaritas'' ("association of female students of Germany Hilaritas"). This diversification progressed to the point that the formerly despised students' culture heavily influenced society, especially affecting the language. During the Wilhelminian Era, this development peaked, with the largest part of the academic community (active or alumni) being member in one or more of the over 1300 fraternities and even non-members cutting themselves with razors to simulate the appearance of the characteristic fencing wounds. As of today, Bismarck and
Kaiser Wilhelm II Wilhelm II (Friedrich Wilhelm Viktor Albert; 27 January 18594 June 1941) was the last German Emperor (german: Kaiser) and List of monarchs of Prussia, King of Prussia, reigning from 15 June 1888 until Abdication of Wilhelm II, his abdication on 9 ...
still remain the most well-known of ''Corps'' students and German fraternity students in general.


First World War, Weimar Republic and National Socialist rule

This lasted until the first World War, which called all of the active students to serve their country, which many welcomed euphorically. Fatalities substantially reduced the number of fraternity students and students in general. When the war was lost and the Kaiser was forced to step down and hand over the power of state to a democratic government, the fraternities' world shook in its foundations. The violence the students had experienced at war, the uncertainty of the
Weimar Republic The Weimar Republic (german: link=no, Weimarer Republik ), officially named the German Reich, was the government of Germany from 1918 to 1933, during which it was a constitutional federal republic for the first time in history; hence it is al ...
times and the deeply felt humiliation of the harsh conditions of the Peace of Versailles caused many fraternity members to enlist in the newly founded
Freikorps (, "Free Corps" or "Volunteer Corps") were irregular German and other European military volunteer units, or paramilitary, that existed from the 18th to the early 20th centuries. They effectively fought as mercenary or private armies, regar ...
, paramilitary organizations thought to protect democracy. As open battles between ''Freikorps'' members and communist activists began, many quickly radicalized throughout society, resulting in formerly non-political fraternities developing an extreme nationalist, anti-communist and antisemitic standpoint. As this was a fertile ground for the newly founded
NSDAP The Nazi Party, officially the National Socialist German Workers' Party (german: Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei or NSDAP), was a far-right politics, far-right political party in Germany active between 1920 and 1945 that crea ...
to flourish on, many soon committed themselves to its principles, with some, such as the ''Burschenschaft'', expelling Jews as early as 1920. When the NSDAP seized power in 1933, many rejoiced, although it was soon made clear that ''Studentenverbindungen'' would not be allowed to persist. There are several exceptions, though, most notably the ''Corps Saxo-Borussia'', whose members loudly discussed on different occasions if "the fuehrer were to eat his asparagus with his knife, his fork, or his paws", coming to the conclusion that he had "so large a gab, he would be able to eat it crosswise". This led to all ''Studentenverbindungen'' being classified as "reactionary", and most of them either dissolved themselves or were forcibly closed during 1934 to 1938. The former members were then reorganized in ''Kameradschaften'' ("comradeships") and forced to omit their principles of democratic vote, lifelong cooperation, honor and tradition. In secrecy, though, many of the former customs were still practised, although with the outbreak of World War II, few remained to do so during the war.


Post-war times

After the war, the remaining former members soon tried to reorganize themselves, often fusing two or more ''Verbindungen'' to allow for greater impact, such as Guestphalia Bonn (West Germany) and Guestphalia Greifswald (East Germany). Although this was at first made illegal by the
occupation forces Japan was occupied and administered by the victorious Allies of World War II from the 1945 surrender of the Empire of Japan at the end of the war until the Treaty of San Francisco took effect in 1952. The occupation, led by the United States wi ...
and universities, they slowly gained a foothold in society again (see Corps Suevia). Special influences on this include several court decisions, amongst which are the decision that the ''Mensur'' does not violate moral code in 1951, that public display of fraternity colors can not be punished by expulsion from the university (1958, so called "Freiburg color dispute") and the forced acceptance of the last fencing fraternity in Berlin in 1968, and the formal obligation to head of state
Theodor Heuss Theodor Heuss (; 31 January 1884 – 12 December 1963) was a German liberal politician who served as the first president of West Germany from 1949 to 1959. His cordial nature – something of a contrast to the stern character of chancellor K ...
to abolish duels for honor. One side effect is that, due to this persistent struggle back to acceptance through legal action and sheer will of survival, post war fraternities in Germany, unlike their pre-war selves, did not receive any university funding, but had also become completely free and independent of University regulation or oversight. While this allowed for progress and such was achieved during the 1950s and early 1960s, the ''Verbindungen'' again took a hard hit in 1968 with the general socialist sentiment amongst the
student movement Student activism or campus activism is work by students to cause political, environmental, economic, or social change. Although often focused on schools, curriculum, and educational funding, student groups have influenced greater political e ...
and their desire to abolish anything deemed reactionary. As of today, many of the prejudices then expressed still form the base of what little is known to the public about ''Verbindungen'', resulting in a slow and steady decline in membership count since. A notable upswing was only delivered by the recent Bologna process, depriving students of long known means of studying and thus increasing the demand for assistance by experienced alumni. , a bit less than 1% of German university students are active members of a ''Studentenverbindung''. The most prospering ''Studentenverbindungen'' can still be found in cities and towns with traditional
liberal arts college A liberal arts college or liberal arts institution of higher education is a college with an emphasis on undergraduate study in liberal arts and sciences. Such colleges aim to impart a broad general knowledge and develop general intellectual capac ...
s and universities like
Göttingen Göttingen (, , ; nds, Chöttingen) is a college town, university city in Lower Saxony, central Germany, the Capital (political), capital of Göttingen (district), the eponymous district. The River Leine runs through it. At the end of 2019, t ...
,
Bonn The federal city of Bonn ( lat, Bonna) is a city on the banks of the Rhine in the German state of North Rhine-Westphalia, with a population of over 300,000. About south-southeast of Cologne, Bonn is in the southernmost part of the Rhine-Ruhr r ...
and
Heidelberg Heidelberg (; Palatine German language, Palatine German: ''Heidlberg'') is a city in the States of Germany, German state of Baden-Württemberg, situated on the river Neckar in south-west Germany. As of the 2016 census, its population was 159,914 ...
in Germany, with
Munich Munich ( ; german: München ; bar, Minga ) is the capital and most populous city of the States of Germany, German state of Bavaria. With a population of 1,558,395 inhabitants as of 31 July 2020, it is the List of cities in Germany by popu ...
being an exception. Traditional structures have mostly been preserved, with rituals, codes of honor, symbols and principles still intact. Most ''Studentenverbindungen'' still are restricted to only one gender, with the male varieties actively practising the ''Mensur''. However, many have formally repented their presumed mistakes, with memorials of unjustly excluded Jews, for instance, being a common sight in a '' Verbindungshaus''.


Controversy

There are numerous points of critique which are usually discussed without result. The most common include accusations of
nationalism Nationalism is an idea and movement that holds that the nation should be congruent with the State (polity), state. As a movement, nationalism tends to promote the interests of a particular nation (as in a in-group and out-group, group of peo ...
,
racism Racism is the belief that groups of humans possess different behavioral traits corresponding to inherited attributes and can be divided based on the superiority of one race over another. It may also mean prejudice, discrimination, or antagonism ...
,
sexism Sexism is prejudice or discrimination based on one's sex or gender. Sexism can affect anyone, but it primarily affects women and girls.There is a clear and broad consensus among academic scholars in multiple fields that sexism refers primari ...
and
elitism Elitism is the belief or notion that individuals who form an elite—a select group of people perceived as having an intrinsic quality, high intellect, wealth, power, notability, special skills, or experience—are more likely to be constructi ...
. * Nationalism: Based on the historical background of many ''Verbindungen'', especially Burschenschaften, having either a strong link to a former princedom or having displayed strong nationalism before these were abolished, the accusation of nationalism is the most frequent, to the harm of the other ''Verbindungen''. * Racism: With long histories of white supremacy and antisemitism, today's ''Verbindungen'' are often said to be prone to structural racism. Supporters, on the other hand, often argue that the evidence is largely anecdotal. The ''Burschenschaft''s criterion of only admitting males "of German culture" often draws criticism, as well. However, the majority of ''Verbindungen'', especially Corps, define themselves as tolerant in general, regardless of race, ethnicity or national origin. * Sexism: As the majority of ''Studentenverbindungen'' are male-only, left-wing student organizations in particular often raise allegations of sexism. This is often combined with the accusation of being elitist, as it restricts women from making use of the same lucrative career networks as males. There is a long list of female-only ''Verbindungen'' however, with a historic background reaching to 1898, whilst the oldest still active ''Verbindung'' was founded in 1976. * Elitism: ''Alte Herren'' are said to take care of the students' careers, helping them in their subjects of study and in other areas of life, up to organizing good jobs and opportunities after graduation. This networking is seen as problematic by other students and most
students' union A students' union, also known by many other names, is a student organization present in many colleges, universities, and high schools. In higher education, the students' union is often accorded its own building on the campus, dedicated to social, ...
s. Today's fraternities dismiss this as a stereotype stemming from the Wilhelminian Era, when fraternities were much more common and a career was near-impossible without their help. Apart from debate, these accusations have led to numerous acts of politically motivated violence, with over 100 cases in 2010 alone, ranging from simple vandalism such as destroying windows and spraying graffiti, through aggravated assault, to arson endangering fraternity members.


Common types

Despite a wide variety of ''Studentenverbindungen'', certain kinds are more common: Notes: wc=wearing couleur; nc=not wearing couleur; pF=practicing academic fencing; fo=academic fencing optional; nF=not practicing academic fencing Uncommon, but influential are the academical-technical engineering clubs ("Akademischer Verein") of the ''Hütte'' and ''Miltenberg-Wernigeroder Ring''; the "Hütte" is the publisher of one of the major
engineering Engineering is the use of scientific method, scientific principles to design and build machines, structures, and other items, including bridges, tunnels, roads, vehicles, and buildings. The discipline of engineering encompasses a broad rang ...
compendiums in Germany.


See also


Umbrella organizations of fraternities

Corps: *
Kösener Senioren-Convents-Verband The Kösener Senioren-Convents-Verband (abbreviation: KSCV) is the oldest association of German, Austrian and Swiss Studentenverbindungen. It comprises roughly 105 German, Austrian and a Flemish (Belgian), Hungarian and Swiss ''Corps'', all o ...
and website
Kösener Senioren-Convents-Verband
(KSCV) *
Weinheimer Senioren-Convent The Weinheimer Senioren-Convent (abbreviation: WSC) is the second oldest association of German Studentenverbindungen. It comprises roughly 60 German ''Corps'', all of which are based upon the principle of tolerance. The WSC had been founded in ...
and website
Weinheimer Senioren-Convent
(WSC) Burschenschaften:
Deutsche Burschenschaft
(DB)
Neue Deutsche Burschenschaft
(NDB) Others: * Coburger Convent der akademischen Landsmannschaften und Turnerschaften (CC) * Kartellverband katholischer deutscher Studentenvereine (KV) *
Cartellverband der katholischen deutschen Studentenverbindungen The Union of Catholic German Student Fraternities (german: Cartellverband der katholischen deutschen Studentenverbindungen or ''Cartellverband'' (CV)) is a German umbrella organization of Catholic male student fraternities (Studentenverbindung). ...
(CV) * Wingolfsbund (WB) *
Katholiek Vlaams Hoogstudentenverbond Katholiek Vlaams Hoogstudentenverbond (KVHV) or the Catholic Flemish Students' Union is a political student society which concerns Flemish nationalism and conservatism. It accepts male and female members and has chapters in Ghent, Leuven, Antwerp, ...
(KVHV) *
Nationalistische Studentenvereniging The Nationalistische Studentenvereniging (NSV) (Dutch; "Nationalist Student Association") is a far-right Flemish nationalist student political group in Belgium, with chapters in Antwerp, Brussels, Ghent, Leuven, West Flanders (including Bruges, R ...
(NSV) (
Flemish Flemish (''Vlaams'') is a Low Franconian dialect cluster of the Dutch language. It is sometimes referred to as Flemish Dutch (), Belgian Dutch ( ), or Southern Dutch (). Flemish is native to Flanders, a historical region in northern Belgium; ...
) *
Schweizerischer Studentenverein The Schweizerischer Studentenverein (''Swiss Student's Society'', abbreviation SSS; French: ''Société des Etudiants Suisses'') is a society of colour bearing students of both genders and at the same time a federation of student corporations which ...
(StV-SES)


References


Further reading

* Rolf-Joachim Baum (Hrsg.), "Wir wollen Männer, wir wollen Taten!" Deutsche Corpsstudenten 1848 bis heute, Siedler-Verlag, Berlin 1998, *Martin Biastoch: Duell und Mensur im Kaiserreich (am Beispiel der Tübinger Corps Franconia, Rhenania, Suevia und Borussia zwischen 1871 und 1895). SH-Verlag, Vierow 1995, *Martin Biastoch: Tübinger Studenten im Kaiserreich. Eine sozialgeschichtliche Untersuchung, Sigmaringen 1996 (Contubernium - Tübinger Beiträge zur Universitäts- und Wissenschaftsgeschichte Bd. 44) *Martin Biastoch: Die Corps im Kaiserreich – Idealbild einer Epoche?. In: "Wir wollen Männer, wir wollen Taten" – Deutsche Corpsstudenten 1848 bis heute, hrg. v. Rolf Joachim Baum, Siedler Verlag, Berlin 1998, S. 111–132. *Edwin A. Biedermann, "Logen, Clubs und Bruderschaften", Droste-Verlag, 2007, 2. Auflage, , 415 Seiten, * Manfred Studier: ''Der Corpsstudent als Idealbild der Wilhelminischen Ära - Untersuchungen zum Zeitgeist 1888 bis 1914'', Abhandlungen zum Studenten- und Hochschulwesen, Band 3, Schernfeld 1990, * Jonathan Green: ''Armed and Courteous'', ''
Financial Times The ''Financial Times'' (''FT'') is a British daily newspaper printed in broadsheet and published digitally that focuses on business and economic current affairs. Based in London, England, the paper is owned by a Japanese holding company, Nik ...
'', 3 January 2004, S.16
online (JPG-Scans)
* R.G.S. Weber: ''The German Corps in the Third Reich'' Macmillan London, German edition: ''Die Deutschen Corps im dritten Reich'' SH-Verlag * U. Altermatt (Ed.), ''Den Riesenkampf mit dieser Zeit zu wagen... Schweizerischer Studentenverein 1841-1991''. Maihof-Verlag, Luzern, 1993, * R.G.S. Weber: ''The German Corps in the Third Reich'' Macmillan London * Peter Krause: ''O alte Burschenherrlichkeit - Die Studenten und ihr Brauchtum'', Graz, Wien, Köln 1979 (German), * Peter Krause: ''O alte Burschenherrlichkeit - Die Studenten und ihr Brauchtum'', 5. verb. Auflage, Graz, Wien, Köln 1997 (German), * Paulgerhard Gladen: ''Gaudeamus igitur - Die studentischen Verbindungen einst und jetzt'', Köln 2001 (German), * Marc Zirlewagen (Hg.): ''Wir siegen oder fallen - Deutsche Studenten im Ersten Weltkrieg'', Köln 2008 (GERMAN), * Edgar Hunger / Curt Meyer: ''Studentisches Brauchtum'', Bonn, Stuttgart 1958 (German)


External links


Schweizerischer Studentenverein

German website of "Landsmannschaft Ulmia Tübingen"

English website of Corps Borussia
{{Authority control * Austrian culture Swiss culture German words and phrases