''Stachybotrys'' () is a

genus Genus ( plural genera ) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms as well as viruses. In the hierarchy of biological classification, genus comes above species and below family. In binomial nom ...

mold A mold () or mould () is one of the structures certain fungi can form. The dust-like, colored appearance of molds is due to the formation of spores containing fungal secondary metabolites. The spores are the dispersal units of the fungi. Not ...

hyphomycetes Hyphomycetes are a form classification of fungi, part of what has often been referred to as fungi imperfecti, Deuteromycota, or anamorphic fungi. Hyphomycetes lack closed fruit bodies, and are often referred to as moulds (or molds). Most hyph ...

or asexually reproducing, filamentous

fungi A fungus ( : fungi or funguses) is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, separately from ...

, now placed in the family Stachybotryaceae. The genus was erected by

August Carl Joseph Corda August Carl Joseph Corda (1809–1849) was a Czech physician and mycologist. This botanist is denoted by the author abbreviation when citing a botanical name. Early life and education Corda was born in Reichenberg (now Liberec), Bohemia on N ...

in 1837. Historically, it was considered closely related to the genus ''Memnoniella'', because the spores are produced in slimy heads rather than in dry chains. Recently, the synonymy of the two genera is generally accepted. Most ''Stachybotrys'' species inhabit materials rich in

cellulose Cellulose is an organic compound with the formula , a polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to many thousands of β(1→4) linked D-glucose units. Cellulose is an important structural component of the primary cell w ...

. The genus has a widespread distribution and contains about 50 species. The name comes from the Greek words σταχυς ''stakhus'' (ear of grain, stalk, stick; metaphorically, progeny) and βότρυς ''botrus'' (cluster or bunch as in grapes, trusses). The most infamous species, '' S. chartarum'' (previously known as ''S. atra'') and ''S. chlorohalonata'', are known as black mold or toxic black mold in the U.S., and are frequently associated with poor

indoor air quality Indoor air quality (IAQ) is the air quality within and around buildings and structures. IAQ is known to affect the health, comfort, and well-being of building occupants. Poor indoor air quality has been linked to sick building syndrome, reduce ...

that arises after fungal growth on water-damaged building materials. ''Stachybotrys''

chemotypes A chemotype (sometimes chemovar) is a chemically distinct entity in a plant or microorganism, with differences in the composition of the secondary metabolites. Minor genetic and epigenetic changes with little or no effect on morphology or anatomy ...

are toxic, with one producing

trichothecene The trichothecenes are a large family of chemically related mycotoxins. They are produced by various species of ''Fusarium'', ''Myrothecium'', ''Trichoderma''/''Podostroma'', '' Trichothecium'', ''Cephalosporium'', '' Verticimonosporium'', and ''S ...

mycotoxins A mycotoxin (from the Greek μύκης , "fungus" and τοξίνη , "toxin") is a toxic secondary metabolite produced by organisms of kingdom Fungi and is capable of causing disease and death in both humans and other animals. The term 'mycotoxin' ...

including

satratoxin Satratoxin-H, a trichothecene mycotoxin, is a naturally occurring toxin produced by the ascomycetes '' Stachybotrys chartarum'' and ''Podostroma cornu-damae'' which is toxic to humans and animals. The clinical condition it causes is known as '' ...

s, and another that produces atranones. However, the association of ''Stachybotrys'' mold with specific health conditions is not well proven and there exists a debate within the scientific community.

Conidia

Conidia are in slimy masses, smooth to coarsely rough, dark olivaceous to brownish black, obovoid, later becoming ellipsoid with age, 10–13 × 5–7 mm. Phialides are obovate or ellipsoidal, colorless early then turning to olivaceous with maturity, smooth, 12–14 × 5–7 mm, in clusters of 5 to 9 phialides. Conidiophores are simple, erect, smooth to rough, colorless to olivaceous, slightly enlarged apically, mostly unbranched but occasionally branched. Conidia of ''Stachybotrys'' are very characteristic and can be confidently identified in spore count samples. This genus is closely related to ''Memnoniella''. Species of ''Memnoniella'' may occasionally develop ''Stachybotrys''-like conidia, and vice versa.

Detection

Four distinctive microbial

volatile organic compound Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are organic compounds that have a high vapour pressure at room temperature. High vapor pressure correlates with a low boiling point, which relates to the number of the sample's molecules in the surrounding air, a ...

s (MVOCs) –

1-butanol 1-Butanol, also known as butan-1-ol or ''n''-butanol, is a primary alcohol with the chemical formula C4H9OH and a linear structure. Isomers of 1-butanol are isobutanol, butan-2-ol and ''tert''-butanol. The unmodified term butanol usually refers ...

, 3-methyl-1-butanol, 3-methyl-2-butanol, and

thujopsene Thujopsene is a natural chemical compound, classified as a sesquiterpene, with the molecular formula C15H24. Thujopsene is found in the essential oil of a variety of conifers, in particular '' Juniperus cedrus'' and '' Thujopsis dolabrata'' i ...

– were detected on rice cultures, and only one (1-butanol) was detected on

gypsum board Drywall (also called plasterboard, dry lining, wallboard, sheet rock, gypsum board, buster board, custard board, and gypsum panel) is a panel made of calcium sulfate dihydrate (gypsum), with or without additives, typically extruded between thic ...

cultures.

Pathogenicity

Symptoms of ''Stachybotrys'' exposure in humans

A controversy began in the early 1990s after analysis of two infant deaths and multiple cases in children from the poor areas of

Cleveland Cleveland ( ), officially the City of Cleveland, is a city in the U.S. state of Ohio and the county seat of Cuyahoga County. Located in the northeastern part of the state, it is situated along the southern shore of Lake Erie, across the U.S. ...

, Ohio, United States, due to

pulmonary hemorrhage Pulmonary hemorrhage (or pulmonary haemorrhage) is an acute bleeding from the lung, from the upper respiratory tract and the trachea, and the pulmonary alveoli. When evident clinically, the condition is usually massive.

were initially linked to exposure to heavy amounts of '' Stachybotrys chartarum''. Subsequent and extensive reanalysis of the cases by the United States

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) is the national public health agency of the United States. It is a United States federal agency, under the Department of Health and Human Services, and is headquartered in Atlanta, Georgi ...

have failed to find any link between the deaths and the mold exposure.

Species

*'' Stachybotrys albipes'' (Berk. & Broome) S.C. Jong & Davis (1976) *'' Stachybotrys alternans'' Bonord. (1851) *''

Stachybotrys breviuscula ''Stachybotrys'' () is a genus of molds, hyphomycetes or asexually reproducing, filamentous fungi, now placed in the family Stachybotryaceae. The genus was erected by August Carl Joseph Corda in 1837. Historically, it was considered closely rel ...

'' McKenzie (1991) *'' Stachybotrys chartarum'' (Ehrenb.) S. Hughes (1958) *'' Stachybotrys chlorohalonata'' B. Andersen & Thrane (2003) *'' Stachybotrys cylindrospora'' C.N. Jensen (1912) *'' Stachybotrys dichroa'' Grove (1886) *'' Stachybotrys elegans'' (Pidopl.) W. Gams (1980) *'' Stachybotrys eucylindrospora'' D.W. Li (2007) *'' Stachybotrys freycinetiae'' McKenzie (1991) *'' Stachybotrys kampalensis'' Hansf. (1943) *'' Stachybotrys kapiti'' Whitton, McKenzie & K.D. Hyde (2001) *'' Stachybotrys longispora'' Matsush. (1975) *'' Stachybotrys mangiferae'' P.C. Misra & S.K. Srivast. (1982) *''

Stachybotrys microspora ''Stachybotrys'' () is a genus of molds, hyphomycetes or asexually reproducing, filamentous fungi, now placed in the family Stachybotryaceae. The genus was erected by August Carl Joseph Corda in 1837. Historically, it was considered closely rel ...

'' (B.L. Mathur & Sankhla) S.C. Jong & E.E. Davis (1976) *''

Stachybotrys nephrodes ''Stachybotrys'' () is a genus of molds, hyphomycetes or asexually reproducing, filamentous fungi, now placed in the family Stachybotryaceae. The genus was erected by August Carl Joseph Corda in 1837. Historically, it was considered closely rel ...

'' McKenzie (1991) *'' Stachybotrys nephrospora'' Hansf. (1943) *'' Stachybotrys nilagirica'' Subram. (1957) *''

Stachybotrys oenanthes ''Stachybotrys'' () is a genus of Mold (fungus), molds, hyphomycetes or asexually reproducing, filamentous fungus, fungi, now placed in the family Stachybotryaceae. The genus was erected by August Carl Joseph Corda in 1837. Historically, it was ...

'' M.B. Ellis (1971) *''

Stachybotrys parvispora ''Stachybotrys'' () is a genus of molds, hyphomycetes or asexually reproducing, filamentous fungi, now placed in the family Stachybotryaceae. The genus was erected by August Carl Joseph Corda in 1837. Historically, it was considered closely rel ...

'' S. Hughes (1952) *'' Stachybotrys ruwenzoriensis'' Matsush. (1985) *'' Stachybotrys sansevieriae'' G.P. Agarwal & N.D. Sharma (1974) *'' Stachybotrys sinuatophora'' Matsush. (1971) *'' Stachybotrys suthepensis'' Photita, P. Lumyong, K.D. Hyde & McKenzie (2003) *'' Stachybotrys theobromae'' Hansf. (1943) *'' Stachybotrys waitakere'' Whitton, McKenzie & K.D. Hyde (2001)

References

External links

* {{Taxonbar, from=Q625873 Hypocreales genera Environmental toxicology Stachybotryaceae Taxa named by August Carl Joseph Corda Taxa described in 1837